Table 2 Identified animals and associated food taboos
Class/species | Country/continent | Global status | Taboo | Taboo description |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Mammals | ||||
Nycticebus javanicus (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812) | Indonesia/Asia | EN | TE | Taking the animal home can cause misfortune, tragedies, natural catastrophes [28] |
Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton, 1905) | India/Asia | LC | TE | The belief in a community that whoever kills the animal goes to hell [29] |
Pardofelis marmorata (Martin, 1837) | NT | TE | They are not killed because they are totemic symbols for various tribes [46] | |
Budorcas taxicolor (Hodgson, 1850) | VU | TS; LST and TE | Consumption is restricted to the higher status population, there is a belief that the animal is descended from the Tibetan royal lineage [27] | |
Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) | EN | TE | In the Mishmi tribe, it is believed that the species is ancestral sibling. Anyone who hunts this animal is penalized [27] | |
Catopuma temminckii (Vigors and Horsfiels, 1827) | NT | TE | They are not killed because they are totemic symbols for various tribes [46] | |
Grus antigone (Linnaeus, 1758) | VU | TE | Whoever kills the animal will be punished with the birth of handicapped children [29] | |
Felis catus (Linnaeus, 1758) | NE | TE | In the Bhil community, cat killing is prohibited, as whoever does so can go to hell [29] | |
Trachypithecus pileatus (Blyth, 1843) | VU | TE | Brings luck [27] | |
Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett, 1833) | Bangladesh/Asia | VU | TE | Sacred animal [39] |
Hoolock tianxing (Peng-Fei Fan, Kai He, Xing Chen et al., 2017) | China/Asia | EN | TE | They are considered ancestors or gods [26] |
Lagostomus maximus (Desmarest, 1817) | Argentina/South America | LC | TS | Meat taste bad [37] |
Myrmecophaga tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758) | VU | TS | Pregnant women cannot eat [37] | |
Mazama americana (Erxleben, 1777) | Brazil/South America | DD | TE | Meat causes swelling of the eyes and stomach and causes dizziness [1] |
Ateles chamek (Humboldt, 1812) | EN | TS | Aggravates inflammation [7] | |
Cebus albifrons (Humboldt, 1812) | EN | TE | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Bradypus variegatus (Schinz, 1825) | LC | TS | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Cuniculus paca (Linnaeus, 1766) | LC | TE and TS | Meat considered fatty and not consumed by Adventist Christians [1, 7] | |
Dasypus novemcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TE | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Eira barbara (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TE | It is believed that the taste of the meat is sweet because the animal feeds on honey [1] | |
Mazama gouazoubira (G. Fischer [von waldheim], 1814) | LC | TE | Meat causes swelling of the eyes and stomach and causes dizziness [1] | |
Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766) | LC | TE | It has a bad smell [1] | |
Pecari tajacu (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TS and TE | ||
Saimiri sciureus (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TE | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Sapajus apella (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TE | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Alouatta seniculus (Linnaeus, 1766) | NT | TE | Bad-smelling meat [1] | |
Leopardus wiedii (Schinz, 1821) | NT | TE | Meat with a bad smell and due to the generalist diet of the animal [1] | |
Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758) | NT | TE | Consumption can cause headache, swelling and dizziness [1] | |
Tapirus terrestres (Linnaeus, 1758) | VU | TE | ||
Tayassu pecari (Link, 1795) | VU | TE | ||
Trichechus inunguis (Natterer, 1883) | VU | TE | Avoided due to hybrid character (aquatic mammal) [1] | |
Dasyprocta leporina (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TS | Not consumed by Adventist Christians [7] | |
Trichechus manatus (Linnaeus, 1758) | Venezuela/South America | VU | TE | Indigenous tribes in the Amazon believe that they are people in the form of the animal [34] |
Manis (Smutsia) temminckii (Smuts, 1832) | South Africa/Africa | VU | TE | Cultural beliefs can increase the demand for the animal or protect it [42] |
Pteropus tonganus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1830) | Niue/Oceania | LC | TH | The animal occurs in protected areas [43] |
Birds | ||||
Gallus Gallus (Linnaeus, 1758) | Bangladesh/Asia | NE | TE | Sacred animal [39] |
Aquilla clanga (Pallas, 1811) | VU | TE | Sacred animal [39] | |
Psophia crepitans (Linnaeus, 1758) | Brazil/South America | LC | TE | Avoided as food for cultural reasons [1] |
Mitu tuberosum (Spix, 1825) | NT | TS | Not consumed by Adventist Christians [7] | |
Psophia viridis (Spix, 1825) | VU | TS | Not consumed by Adventist Christians [7] | |
Reptiles | ||||
Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) | Gana/Africa | CR | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the species [44] |
Brazil/South America | TE | Very “strong” meat is avoided by communities [31] | ||
Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) | Brazil/South America | EN | TE | Very “strong” meat is avoided by communities [31] |
Malayopython reticulatus (Schneider, 1801) | Indonesia/Asia | LC | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the animal [27] |
Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) | LC | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the animal [27] | |
Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) | Bangladesh/Asia | NT | TE | Sacred animal [39] |
Chelonoidis carbonarius (Spix, 1824) | Brazil/South America | EN | TE and TS | Avoided due to the eating habits of the species, Adventist Christians do not consume; can cause discomfort to those who eat [1, 7, 14] |
Chelonoidis denticulatus (Linnaeus, 1766) | Brazil/South America | EN | TE and TS | Avoided due to the eating habits of the species, Adventist Christians do not consume; can cause discomfort to those who eat [1, 7, 14] |
Peru/South America | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the species [32] | ||
Chelus fimbriatus (Schneider, 1783) | Brazil/South America | LC | TE | They are avoided due to the feeding habits of the species and because they are similar to snakes [1] |
Mesoclemmys gibba (Schweigger, 1812) | Peru/South America | NE | TE | Avoided due to smell [32] |
Mesoclemmys raniceps (Gray, 1856) | Brazil/South America | EM | TS | May cause discomfort to those who eat [14] |
Rhinemys rufipes (Spix, 1824) | NT | May cause discomfort to those who eat [14] | ||
Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) | Gana/Africa | VU | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the species [44] |
Brazil/South America | TS | Meat is considered “strong,” people in a state of vulnerability should avoid [31] | ||
Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) | Brazil/South America | VU | TS | Meat is considered “strong,” people in a state of vulnerability should avoid [31] |
Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) | Gana/Africa | VU | TE | Cultural beliefs protect the species [44] |
Peltocephalus dumerilianus (Schweigger, 1812) | Brazil/South America | VU | TS | Meat can cause allergies, inflammations, stains and irritations [14] |
Podocnemis unifilis (Troschel, 1848) | Peru/South America | VU | TE and TS | Only adults can consume parts of it [32] |
Fish | ||||
Arapaima gigas (Schinz, 1822) | Brazil/South America | DD | TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [1] |
Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier, 1832) | LC | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [38] | |
Bagre bagre (Linnaeus, 1766) | LC | TS | They are prohibited for people in states of vulnerability [25] | |
Caranx hippos (Linnaeus, 1766) | LC | TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4] | |
Electrophorus electricus (Linnaeus, 1766) | LC | TE | Rejected for unpleasant appearance [1] | |
Euthynnus alletteratus (Rafinesque, 1810) | LC | TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4, 30] | |
Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus (Spix and Agassiz, 1829) | LC | TE | Meat is considered sweet [1] | |
Hoplias brasiliensis (Spix and Agassiz, 1829) | LC | TS | Pregnant women should avoid consumption [45] | |
Micropogonias furnieri (Desmarest, 1823) | LC | TS | Meat is considered “strong,” and vulnerable people should avoid consumption [30] | |
Mugil curema (Valenciennes, 1836) | LC | TE | Greasy [4] | |
Oxydoras niger (Valenciennes, 1821) | LC | TS | It can bring discomfort to those who consume it [2] | |
Prochilodus brevis (Steindachner, 1875) | LC | TS | Pregnant women should avoid consumption [45] | |
Satanoperca lilith (Kullander and Ferreira, 1988) | LC | TE | Meat is considered soft and tasteless [1] | |
Scomberomorus brasiliensis (Mitchhill, 1815) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [30] | |
Scomberomorus cavala (Cuvier, 1829) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [30] | |
Semaprochilodus brama (Valenciennes, 1850) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [30] | |
Sternarchorhynchus axelrodi (de Santana and Vari, 2010) | LC | TE | Rejected by appearance [1] | |
Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [38] | |
Trichiurus lepturus (Linnaeus, 1758) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4, 30] | |
Zungaro zungaro (Humboldt, 1821) | LC | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [11] | |
Asterophysus batrachus (Kner, 1858) | EN | TE | Rejected by appearance [1] | |
Astronotus crassipinnis (Heckel, 1840) | EN | TE | Meat is considered soft and tasteless [1] | |
Astronotus ocellatus (Agassiz, 1831) | EN | TS | Prohibited for women during the puerperium, it can cause spots on the woman or the baby [1] | |
Brachyplatystoma filamentosum (Lichtenstein, 1819) | EN | TS and TE | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2, 4] | |
Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (Castelnau, 1855) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2] | |
Calophysus macropterus (Lichtenstein, 1819) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [35] | |
Cichla ocellaris (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) | EN | TS | Pregnant women should avoid consumption [45] | |
Cichla temensis (Humboldt, 1821) | EN | TE and TS | Meat spoils quickly [1] | |
Crenicichla lenticulata (Heckel, 1840) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [1] | |
Hoplias malabaricus (Bloch, 1794) | EN | TS and TE | ||
Hoplosternum littorale (Hancock, 1828) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2] | |
Leporinus fasciatus (Bloch, 1794) | EN | TS | Prohibited for women during the puerperium, it can cause spots on the woman or the baby [1] | |
Mugil gaimardianus (Desmarest, 1831) | EN | TS | Certain people cannot consume [25] | |
Myleus rubripinnis (Müller and Troschel, 1844) | EN | TS | Prohibited for women during the puerperium, it can cause spots on the woman or the baby [1] | |
Phractocephalus hemioliopterus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4, 11] | |
Pimelodina flavipinnis (Steindaschner, 1876) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2, 4] | |
Pinirampus pirinampu (Spix and Agassiz, 1829) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4, 30, 35] | |
Prochilodus nigricans (Spix and Agassiz, 1829) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [4, 35] | |
Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum (Linnaeus, 1766) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [1, 2, 4, 35] | |
Pseudoplatystoma punctifer (Castelnau, 1855) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2] | |
Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum (Valenciennes, 1840) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2] | |
Sternopygus macrurus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) | EN | TE | Rejected by appearance [1] | |
Trachelyopterus galeatus (Linnaeus, 1766) | EN | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [2] | |
Sardina pilchardus (Walbaum, 1792) | Portugal/Europe | LC | TS | High concentration of proteins and fats can be harmful [41] |