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Table 2 Medicinal plants and uses

From: Ethnomedicine use in the war affected region of northwest Pakistan

Serial no.

Botanical names

Family

Local names

Life form

Part used

Plant occurrence status

Medicinal uses

Recipes

1

Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd.

Mimosaceae

Kekar

Tree

Bark

Wild

Wound healing

Dermal use of the wood ash on wounds.

2

Acacia modesta. Wall.

Mimosaceae

Palosa

Tree

Leaves

Wild

Tonic, stimulant

Powdered leaves or gum are taken orally at the rate of one teaspoon with milk to get instant energy. Also useful as a sex tonic.

3

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile

Mimosaceae

Kekkar

Tree

Shoots

Wild

Carminative, Increase the sperm flow

Grind the newly born shoots along with some condiments (zeera) and pomegranate flowers, and use orally as carminative for infants.

4

Allium sativum. L.

Amaryllidaceae

Ezzha

Herb

Fruit

Cultivated

Decrease cholesterol, Bones disorders

3-5 pieces of garlic are taken orally on a daily basis to decrease the cholesterol level. Ground garlic with butter is used dermally for bone pains.

5

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Asparagaceae

Zargaya

Shrub

Leaves

Wild

Wound healing

Cut the leaf and add powdered Curcuma longa for dermal use on wounds.

6

Amaranthus viridis L.

Amaranthaceae

Unknown

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Emollient

A decoction of the leaves is used dermally as an emollient and for inflammation. Root juice is also used for the same purpose.

7

Ampelodesmos mauritanicus (Poir.) T. Durand & Schinz

Poaceae

Khaas

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Vermicides

Leaves boiled in water and used orally.

8

Artemisia maritima L.

Asteraceae

Jhaan

Herb

Flowers

Wild

Vermicides

Grind the dried florets or flowers and take 1–2 tea spoons orally for intestinal worms.

9

Arundo donax L.

Poaceae

Kalam

Herb

Rhizome

Wild

Diuretic

Burn the underground part. The resultant ash is boiled with water, which is filtered then for oral uptake.

10

Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

Asparagaceae

Unknown

Herb

Rhizome

Wild

Carminative, Demulcent

Grind roots and make powder. Take this powder orally at the rate of one teaspoon.

11

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss

Poaceae

Baanss

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Expectorant

Extract the juice from the leaves and take orally along with honey.

12

Bauhinia variegata L.

Papilionaceae

Kachnaal

Tree

Flowers

Cultivated

Carminative

Grind the dried flowers for oral uptake.

13

Brassica oleracea L.

Brassicaceae.

Gobee

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Vegetable, arthritis

Boil the leaves in water till it becomes greasy for dermal use on arthritis.

14

Brassica rapa L.

Brassicaceae

Shaljam

Herb

Whole plant

Cultivated

Blood purifier, appetizer,

Make as a pickle for an appetizer. Cook it as a vegetable, which helps in blood purification.

15

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken

Crassulaceae

Zakham-hayat

Shrub

Whole plant

Wild/cultivated

Vermicide

Boil 10 grams of the plant in water and grind. Orally taken for 7 days on an empty stomach to kill the intestinal worms.

16

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand

Apocynaceae

Spalmaka

Shrub

Milky extract

Wild

Dermatitis, antiseptic

Cut into portions to secrete the milky juice, which is used dermally for the curing dermatitis. Also used as an antiseptic.

17

Cannabis sativa L.

Cannabaceae

Bhaang

Shrub

Seeds, leaves

Wild/cultivated

Analgesic

Boil leaves and seeds in water and then spray the water dermally on painful areas.

18

Capparis aphylla. Roth, Nov.

Capparaceae

Karrir

Tree

Wood

Wild

Low back pain

Smolder the wood to charcoal, add 2–3 gram of this charcoal into the cooking oil to make a paste that is used dermally for back pain.

19

Caralluma tuberculata N.E.Br.

Apocynaceae

Pawoona

Shrub

Whole plant

Wild

Anti-diabetic, decrease cholesterol.

Cook it like a vegetable that is taken orally for diabetes treatment. Also, eat directly as a salad for sliming and for diabetic purposes.

20

Cassia fistula L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Garda nail

Tree

Fruits, leaves

Cultivated

Febrifuge, Purgative

Boil leaves and flowers as vegetables. Eat 2–4 fruits over 3 days for constipation.

21

Centaurea solstitialis L.

Asteraceae

Barham dandi

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Febrifuge

2 spoons of powdered form are taken orally with water 3 times a day for 3 days.

22

Chirita asperifolia (Blume) B.L.Burtt

Gesneriaceae

Cherita

Herb

Leaves, flowers

Wild

Febrifuge

Take 25 grams of aerial part and boil it like green tea for reducing fever.

23

Chenopodium album L.

Amaranthaceae

Surma

Herb

Leaves, root

Wild

Laxative, Jaundice and urinary diseases

Extract the juice from their leaves, which is taken orally as a laxative.

24

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Amaranthaceae

Unknown

Herb

Fruits

Wild

Dyspepsia

The dried ripe fruits are crushed into powder form, which is taken orally with water.

25

Cicer arietinum L.

Papilionaceae

Chana

Herb

Fruits or grains

Cultivated

Ethno veterinary, skin itching

Grind their grains and massage this flour dermally on the itching places. Also used for ethno-veterinary purposes.

26

Cichorium intybus L.

Asteraceae

Bhangaara

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Carminative

The whole plant is used for carminative purposes.

27

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad

Cucurbitaceae

Indrine

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Arthritis, head ache

Cook the plant or fruit in olive oil and massage into joints or head.

28

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Convolvulaceae

Parvateyee

Herb

Root

Wild

Purgative

Dried roots are grinded for oral uptake of 1–2 spoons.

29

Cordia gharaf Ehrenb. ex Asch.

Boraginaceae

Lasora

Tree

Fruit

Wild/cultivated

Asthma, expectorant

Dried fruits are used orally for the treatment of several diseases.

30

Coriandrum sativum L

Apiaceae

Dhania

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Carminative

Roast their leaves and take with water orally.

31

Cucumis sativus L.

Cucurbitaceae

Kera

Herb

Fruit

Cultivated

Febrifuge, stomach

Dermal use of grinded fruit on the lower part of the foot to treat fever. Also good for digestion.

32

Curcuma longa L.

Zingiberaceae

Kurkaman

Shrub

Rhizome

Cultivated

Analgesic, Flu and nasal congestion

Powder form is mixed with lime and dermally used on the painful area. Put powder form on the burning coal and inhale the smoke to instantly relieve nasal congestion.

33

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Convolvulaceae

Akas bail

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Wound healing, analgesic

Grind the plant in an adequate amount and cook it in the oil for dermal use on wounds.

34

Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng.

Poaceae

Kana

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Dysentery, vermicides

Boil the leaves in water and the juice is taken orally as a vermicide.

35

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

Poaceae

Lemon grass

Herb

Leaves

Wild/cultivated

Febrifuge, Flu

Boil the leaves in water for 5 minutes and add water to the milk for oral use.

36

Cynodon dactylon var. coursii (A. Camus) J.R. Harlan & de Wet

Poaceae

Owshoo

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Smallpox, bloody piles

Grind it along with Curcuma longa and rice. Use the mixture for smallpox. For piles treatment, grind it with Cannabis sativa leaves, add milk and use orally 2 times a day.

37

Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Papilionaceae

Sheesham

Tree

Leaves

Wild/cultivated

Mental disorder

Take 10 g leaves, add 3 pieces of black pepper and grind for oral use.

38

Datura stramonium L.

Solanaceae

Dhatoora

Herb

Roots, seeds

Wild

Asthma, expectorant

Roast the leaves and inhale the smoke for asthma. Seeds are used as expectorant. Excess use can be lethal.

39

Digera muricata (L.) Mart.

Amaranthaceae

Unknown

Herb

Leaves, shoots

Wild

Urinary tract infection

Leaves and shoots are taken orally as a vegetable to treat urinary tract infection.

40

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.

Sapindaceae

Sanatha

Shrub

Leaves

Wild/cultivated

Rheumatism, swelling and burns

Grind the leaves and add small amount of water to make fine paste for dermal use.

41

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

Asteraceae

Ont katara

Herb

Roots

Wild

Liver disease

Root is mixed with vinegar to make tea for oral use.

42

Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Rosaceae

Alokaat

Tree

Fruits

Cultivated

Produce the fresh blood, stop the bleeding

Take simply their fruits orally for management of several diseases.

43

Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Myrtaceae

Jaman

Tree

Fruits, seeds

Cultivated

Antidiabetic, stomach problems

For stomach problems, grind the dried non-edible portion of fruits for oral uptake at a rate of 1–2 spoons daily for 3 days. Powder is also used for the treatment of diabetics.

44

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Euphorbiaceae

Purporai

Herb

Shoot

Wild

Skin disease

Grind the dried shoots to powder for dermal use on the skin.

45

Euphorbia hirta L.

Euphorbiaceae

Unknown

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Carminative, expectorant

Extract of milky juice is used orally for infants for both diseases.

46

Euphorbia tirucalli L.

Euphorbiaceae

Tohaar

Tree/shrub

Extract

Wild

Piles treatment

Extract their juice, add flour to it and make small tablets for oral use.

47

Fagonia arabica L.

Zygophyllaceae

Dhamasa

Shrub

Whole plant

Wild

Febrifuge, expectorant

Paste it with dried grapes and boil the mixture in order to make a tea for oral use.

48

Fagonia cretica L.

Zygophyllaceae

Spelaghzai

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Cooling agent, scabies treatment

Grind the whole plant in water and filter it to remove the solid contents and then take 1 glass of it orally.

49

Fagonia indica Burm.f.

Zygophyllaceae

Spelaghzai

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Purgative

Grind the whole plant and take 2–3 spoons orally for purgative purposes.

50

Ficus carica L.

Moraceae

Barrh

Tree

Leaves

Wild

Wound healing

Burn the leaves and the ash is sprayed on the wounds dermally.

51

Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem.

Moraceae

Unknown

Tree

Leaves

Cultivated

Wound healing

Bark decoction is generally used for wound healing effect.

52

Ficus religiosa L.

Moraceae

Peppal

Tree

Bark, leaves

Cultivated

Stomach problems,

wounds healing

Burn the bark and make powder from it. Take 5 grams of it orally with water for diarrhea; leaves are used for wound healing.

53

Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

Papaveraceae

Pith-panra

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Blood purifier, Febrifuge

Extract their juice and take orally for purification of blood. Its tea is used for fever.

54

Grewia asiatica L.

Malvaceae

Falsa

Tree

Fruits

Wild/cultivated

Diabetics, cooling agent

Simply eat their fruits to help diabetics. Also provide cooling sensation.

55

Justicia adhatoda L.

Acanthaceae

Unknown

Shrub

Leaves

Wild

Rheumatism, stomachache

Grind the leaves and mix it with honey. The paste is used dermally around the swelling.

56

Lactuca sativa L.

Asteraceae

Salad

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Blood purifier

Simply use as a salad for blood purification.

57

Lallemantia royleana Benth.

Lamiaceae

Balango

Herb

Seeds

Wild

Sexual purposes, carminative

Eat seeds up to 2–5 gram to increase sperm capability. Also used as carminative.

58

Lawsonia alba Lam.

Lythraceae

Mehndi ka poda

Tree

Flowers

Cultivated

Sexual purpose

Cooking of the flowers along with meat is useful in increasing sexual power.

59

Melia azedarach L.

Meliaceae

Bankara

Tree

Seeds

Wild/cultivated

Piles treatment

Eat seed’s internal portion of 2–3 seeds only, but do not exceed as they may be lethal.

60

Mentha piperita L.

Lamiaceae

Podina

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Carminative

Make tea from their leaves and use orally 4–5 times a day.

61

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Nyctaginaceae

Gul-e-abassi

Herb

Root, flowers

Wild

Piles treatment, blood purifier and sexual purpose

Their roots are cooked with meat to increase sperm production and blood purification. Powdered flowers are used orally for piles treatment.

62

Momordica charantia L.

Cucurbitaceae

Karela

Shrub

Leaves

Cultivated

Vegetable, diabetics and hepatitis

As a vegetable, it’s useful for diabetics and hepatitis.

63

Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC.

Sapotaceae

Gurgura

Tree

Fruits, leaves

Wild/ Cultivated

Purgative, Refrigerant

Make juice of their parts and use orally as a purgative and cooling agent.

64

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Moringaceae

Sohanjna

Tree

Root

Cultivated

Kidney-stone, vermicides

Cut their roots and boil in water. Add milk and drink for kidney stones and worms.

65

Morus alba L.

Moraceae

Shah –toot

Tree

Fruits

Cultivated

Heart, Liver tonic

Eat their fruits, which provide the energy to the heart and liver.

66

Morus nigra L.

Moraceae

Tooth-siah

Tree

Leaves, root

Wild/ Cultivated

Analgesic

Boil their leaves and roots in order to make tea for oral use.

67

Musa acuminata Colla.

Musaceae

Kela

Tree

Fruit

Cultivated

Menstruation, antidiabetic

Juice of the fruit is mixed in yogurt for oral uptake during menstruation. In antidiabetic case, roast and powder the flower for oral use.

68

Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff.) Aitch.

Arecaceae

Mazara

Shrub

Leaves

Wild

Carminative, veterinary

Mostly their leaves are used to boil. The juice is then used orally.

69

Nerium oleander L.

Apocynaceae

Kanir

Shrub

Roots

Cultivated

Sexual purpose, strengthen the penis

Cut the root into small pieces and then boil along with milk and pour into the thin cloth and extract like butter for oral use in adequate amounts for sexual purposes.

70

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Oleaceae

Haar singhar

Shrub

Flowers

Wild/cultivated

Cough, antipyretic

Take 6 fresh leaves and grind in water with half a gram of ginger and take orally.

71

Ocimum basilicum L.

Lamiaceae

Takhm-rehan

Herb

Seeds

Wild

Blood purifier

Place the seeds in water to soften and enlarge, then take orally.

72

Olea ferruginea (Sol.) Steud.

Oleaceae

Zaiton

Shrub

Whole plant

Wild

Toothache, antidiabetic

Make powder of it and then take 1 teaspoon for 45 days orally on an empty stomach, which is helpful in uncontrolled diabetics.

73

Opuntia triacantha (Willd.) Sweet

Cactaceae

Zaqqoom

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Dermatitis

Extract their mucilaginous material, which is found in between leaves. Add cooking oil, make a paste and use dermally.

74

Oxalis corniculata L.

Oxilidaceae

Tarookay

Herb

Leaves, root

Wild

Stomach, wound healing and Anthelmintic

Extract juice from fresh leaves and use orally against stomach troubles. Leaves are used as vegetables. Crushed leaves are dermally used on wounds. Decoction of root is anthelmintic.

75

Papaver somniferum L.

Papaveraceae

Opium

Shrub

Fruit, leaves

Wild/ Cultivated

Analgesic, narcotics

Boil the water and add the extract of opium to it and take 1–2 spoons orally of this syrup.

76

Peganum harmala L.

Zygophyllaceae

Spelaanee

Herb

Seeds

Wild

Psycho-spiritual purposes

Put it on burning coal in order to produce smoke, which is used locally to repel evils.

77

Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke

Poaceae

Bajra

Herb

Grain

Cultivated

Carminative

Tie the grains in the piece of cloth, heat it and place in the abdominal region to combat pain.

78

Periploca aphylla Decne.

Asclepiadaceae

Baradda

Shrub

Shoots

Wild

Tumors, swellings

Generally their milky juice is extracted and then used dermally for tumors.

79

Phoenix dactylifera L.

Arecaceae

Khajjor

Tree

Fruits, seeds

Wild/ Cultivated

Stomach, liver tonic and carminative

Ripened fruit is useful for liver and stomach. Seeds are crushed to make a powder, which is used orally as a carminative.

80

Plantago major L.

Plantaginaceae

Barthang

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Dental pain

Boil leaves in water and make tea. Cool and wash the mouth.

81

Portulaca oleracea L.

Portulacaceae

Kulfa-ssag

Herb

Leaves

Cultivated

Antidiabetic

Cook like a vegetable. Do not heat it too much. The color must remain light green.

82

Psidium guajava L.

Myrtaceae

Amrood

Tree

Fruit

Cultivated

Purgative

Whole fruit is eaten simply as a purgative.

83

Punica granatum L.

Lythraceae

Anar

Tree

Fruit

Cultivated

Febrifuge, vermicide

Grind the fruit and orally take 1 spoon 2–3 times a day to kill intestinal germs. For fever, make pomegranate juice, add a little opium, then add sugar for and take orally.

84

Raphanus sativus L.

Brassicaceae

Mooly

Herb

Whole plant

Cultivated

Stomach problems, break the kidney stone and hepatitis

Eating simply is helpful in digestion and for the treatment of kidney stones. Boil their leaves in water and add sugar for oral uptake to treat hepatitis.

85

Rhazya stricta Decne.

Apocyanaceae

Ghandaryee

Shrub

Root

Wild

Analgesic

Boil roots in water for 10 minutes and cool. Wash teeth with this for pain relief.

86

Ricinus communis L.

Euphorbiaceae

Arand

Shrub

Fruits, leaves

Wild

Analgesic

Heat the leaves and fruits for the release of oil, which is spread on the desired place.

87

Saccharum officinarum L.

Poaceae

Gana

Shrub

Fruit

Cultivated

Strengthen the teeth’s, blood purifier and expectorant

Remove the upper portion and then cut down into small pieces and chew, which strengthens the teeth and cures others diseases.

88

Salvadora persica L.

Salvadoraceae

Miswak Tree

Shrub

Bark

Wild/ Cultivated

Blood purifier

Bark is commonly used as a purifying agent.

89

Salvia aegyptiaca L.

Lamiaceae

Balango

Herb

Small grains

Wild

Sexual purpose, male fertility

Eat directly. Small grains increase sperm count and thicken the sexual fluid. Also used for the treatment of infertile parents.

90

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

Asteraceae

Ont katara

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Liver disease, carminative

Cut the roots, add vinegar and make tea, which is used orally for liver disease and for carminative purposes. Cut the roots and add vinegar in order to make pickle.

91

Sisymbrium irio L.

Brassicaceae

Kharkasai

Herb

Seeds

Wild

Febrifuge, expectorant

Seeds are used as an expectorant and used externally as a stimulating poultice. Seeds also used orally to reduce fever.

92

Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.

Brassicaceae

Khob-kalah

Herb

Whole plant

Wild

Febrifuge, expectorant

Dry the plant into powder form, which is used orally for typhoid fever.

93

Solanum nigrum L.

Solanaceae

Makko

Shrub

Leaves, Root

Wild

Cancer treatment, sedative

Grind the leaves and add maize flour in equal quantity and mix both for oral treatment in the case of cancer treatment. Boil roots in water for making tea and use as a sedative.

94

Solanum pseudocapsicum L.

Solanaceae

Kuty lala

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Arthritis

Grind leaves and make a paste. Put on joints for the treatment of arthritis.

95

Solanum surattense Burm. f.

Solanaceae

Maraghareye

Herb

Fruits

Wild

Foot cracks

Cut fruits into two pieces, and massage on the foot cracks.

96

Spinacia oleracea L.

Amaranthaceae

Palak

Shrub

Leaves

Cultivated

Cooling agent

Boil 5–8 leaves in water and take orally for calming the stomach.

97

Tamarix aphylla (L.) H.Karst.

Tamaricaceae

Ghazz

Tree

Leaves

Wild

Smallpox, flatulence

Simply burn the leaves and take their decoction for the treatment of smallpox.

98

Thuja occidentalis L.

Cupressaceae

Sarwa

Tree

Leaves

Cultivated

Dental pain

Boil the leaves in the water and wash mouth for the relief of dental pain.

99

Thymus vulgaris L.

Lamiaceae

Zanglee podina

Shrub

Leaves

Wild

Flatulence

Grind the dried leaves and take 1 spoon orally with curd for calming and flatulence.

100

Eclipta prostrata L.

Asteraceae

Bhangaara

Herb

Leaves

Wild

Blood purifier

Eat 6–7 leaves orally for blood purification.

101

Typha angustifolia L.

Typhaceae

Dheela

Herb

Leaves

Wild/cultivated

Tonic

Dry the leaves and ground into flour or eaten as a cooked vegetable for tonic purposes.

102

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash

Poaceae

Khaas/cus cus grass

Herb

Root

Wild

Analgesic

Grind the root in water and massage the paste dermally on the head for pain relief.

103

Vitis vinifera L.

Vitaceae

Angoor

Shrub

Fruits

Cultivated

Carminative

Eat the fruit for carminative purpose.

104

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Solanaceae

Shahpiangay

Shrub

Fruits, seeds

Wild

Carminative

Put 2–3 seeds or fruits into the water and then eat as a carminative.

105

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

Rhamnaceae

Jangly-bera

Tree

Fruits

Wild

Intestinal, blood purifier

Eat the fruit, which is helpful in the treatment of diarrhea as well as for blood purification.

106

Ziziphus mauritiana var. abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Fiori

Rhamnaceae

Onaab

Tree

Fruits

Wild/cultivated

Blood purifier, smallpox and expectorant

Tea is made from the fruits, which is used individually or in combination with other drugs for curing various diseases.

107

Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

Rhamnaceae

Bair

Tree

Fruit, Root

Wild/cultivated

Blood purifier, stomach disorder and carminative

Roast the fruit and eat for the treatment of stomach problems. Take 5 grams of root and 7 pieces of black pepper, grind and take orally thrice a day for diarrhea and abdominal pain.