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Table 1 Major uses of the medicinal plants, their chemical constituents, and latest common pharmacological findings (species are in order of references)

From: Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal

SN

Scientific name, local name, family and voucher code

Folk use found in present survey

Major folk uses in previous studies

Major uses in the Ayurveda

Selected major chemical constituents

Latest common pharmacological findings

1.

•⊗Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. Campanulaceae Lobelia (E), Aklebir (N), Eklebir (S), 569/00.

Syn. L. nicotianaefolia Roth

Juice of leaves and flowers is rubbed on body parts during body ache.

Leaves and inflorescence are antispasmodic [30] and used for asthma, bronchitis and fever [31].

Leaves and flowers are antispasmodic and they are used as an expectorant. Plant is used for sciatia and back pain [21].

Lobeline, radicamine.

Lobeline may cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea [38].

2.

♥⊗Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Hemp (E), Ganja (N), Bhang (S).

Syn. C. indica Lam.

Leaf juice is applied to control bleeding.

Leaf juice is useful for healing wounds, control bleeding and stomachache [32].

Plant is efficacious for diarrhea. It is also used as antispasmodic [21] and sedative [25].

Cannabigerol, cannabidiol, friedelin, lectins [32].

Leaves are used as snuff for smoking and are given internally to relieve pain and swelling [27]. Lectins possess haema-gluttinating properties [38].

3.

⊗Scutellaria discolor Colebr. Lamiaceae Ratpatya (L), Dampate (N) KU 07263.

Syn. S. indica Blume

Whole plant and leaf paste is useful for cuts and wounds.

Plant juice is useful for headache and fever [28] and wounds healing [30].

Plant juice is used for rheumatism [147].

Wogonin

Root juice is given in indigestion and wogonin exerts anxiolytic effects [135]. Plant and root extract is used for rheumatism [136].

4.

⊗Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae Bedu (N).

Syn. F. virgata Wall.

Plant milk is useful for taking out the thorns from wounds.

Plant latex is used to expel the spines [30]. Fruits are used for constipation, lungs and bladders diseases [33].

Fruits are taken for lungs disorders [147].

Friedelin, tannins.

Fruits act as demulcent and laxative and are useful for lungs, spleen and bladders [136].

5.

♥⊗Grewia disperma Rottb. Tiliaceae Viywal (L), Syalpuchre (N).

Syn. G. serrulata DC.

Root juice is taken as expectorant. Wood paste is applied for skin diseases (no other information given).

Root juice is taken during cough and cold. Bark paste is expectorant and used for boils [33].

Root juice is used for controlling bleeding and bronchitis [147].

--

Plant is applied in bleedings and bronchitis. Fruits are valued as cardiotonic [136].

6.

⊗Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Berberidaceae Podophyllum, May apple (E), Laghupatra (N), Hatkaudo (L), Hansapadi, Laghupatra (S), 583/00.

Syn. P. emodi Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson

Root juice is taken for liver complaints (no other information given).

Plant is hepato-stimulant and purgative [15, 31]. Root paste is applied on ulcer, cuts and wounds [32].

Root extract is purgative [147].

Aryltetralin, astragalin, lignan, picropodophyllin, podophyllotoxin, quercetin [27].

Plant lignan is hepatotoxic [62], aryltetralin is antifungal [148], and podophyllotoxin is antitumour. Aqueous extract of plant has antitumor effects [149].

7.

•⊗Potentilla fulgens Wall. Ex Hook. Rosaceae Himalayan Cinquefoil (E), Phosre (L), Bajradanti (N), Kanthamun (S), 93/00.

Syn. P. siemersiana Lehm.

Dried roots are eaten as dentifrice.

Root used as tooth powder for toothache [30, 31].

Root powder is used for toothache [25].

Carotene, coumarins, flavonoids, polyphenols, sterols [25].

Aqueous extract of the plant reduced germination of food crops [150].

8.

♥⊗Carum carvi L. Apiaceae Caraway (E), Jangali jira (L), Kalo jira (N).

Syn. Apium carvi L.

Fruits are applied against swelling of breast and testicles.

Plant fruit juice is useful for muscular swellings [30]. Raw fruits are stomachic and carminative [31].

Plant seeds are useful in uterinal complaints [22], and used as antidysenteric, astringent, anthelminthic and carminative [151].

Camphene, carvone, caryophyllene, limonene, myrcene, pinene, sabinene, scopoletin, umbelliferone [100].

Fruits are good for painful swelling [152]. Carvone is anthelmintic [153] and antioxidative [154]. Essential oil is antibacterial [155] and antitumeric [156]. Aquous fruit extract is used against hypertension, gonorrhoea [157] and diabetes [158].

9.

♥•⊗Aconitum spicatum (Bruhl) Stapf. Ranunculaceae Nepalese Aconite (E), Bikh (N), Bish (S), KU 07233.

Syn. A. ferox var. spicata Bruhl

Root juice is antipyretic and analgesic.

Tubers are used after detoxification [31] as antipyretic and analgesic [32].

Plant tuber is antipyretic and analgesic [25]. Plant root is used for tonsillitis, sore throat, gastritis, and debility [152].

Bikhaconitine, caffeic acid, diterpenoids, lupenoic acid, pseudaconitine.

Caffeic acid of Aconitum species is antioxidative and anti-inflammatory [138].

10.

♥•⊗Taxus wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger Taxaceae Himalayan Yew (E), Kandeloto (L), Lothsalla (N), Madhuparni (S), 99/00.

Syn. T. baccata auct. non.

Leaf juice is used for cancer and bronchitis.

Bark and leaf juice is useful for asthma, bronchitis and cancer [30, 32].

Dried leaves are considered to be useful for asthma, bronchitis, hiccough, epilepsy, diarrhea and headache [151].

Abeotaxane, baccatin, cephalomannin, docetaxol, paclitaxel, taxol [159].

Fractions of extract of leaves inhibited pregnancy in 60% female rats [22]. It cures vitiation of blood [100] and inhibits tumor growth [101].

11.

♥•⊗Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Fabaceae Cutch tree (E), Khair (N), Khadirah (S).

Syn. A. catechoides (Roxb.)

Wood is used as local tea for cough and cold.

Wood decoction is applied on nosebleeds, skin eruptions and toothache [30] and for cough and bodyache [32].

Plant decoction is used for skin diseases and mouth and mucous defects [21]. Wood is useful for cough and diarrhea [25].

Acacatechin, afzelchin, catechuic acid, catechutannic acid, cyanidanol, dimeric procyanidine, epicatechin, isorhamnetin, phlebotanin, quercetin, taxifolin, tryptamine, vernolic acid [160].

Cyanidanol, an active ingrediant of Acacia catechu, is claimed to be effective for treating liver diseases [95]. Catechu has hypoglycaemic [161], antipyretic [162] and digestive properties [163]. Taxifolin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [164]. Catechuic acid is valued for expectoration for chest infection [165].

12.

⊗Engelhardia spicata Leschen. ex Blume Juglandaceae Mahuwa (N).

Syn. E. colebrookeana Lindl. ex Wall.

Flower juice is drunk for abdominal pain.

Flower juice is useful for abdominal pain [5], cough and cold [166].

Bark is used as piscidal [147].

Engelhardtione, oleanolic acid.

Engelhardtione possesses antituberculer activities [167].

13.

•Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurtz Anacardiaceae Bile tree, Wild mango (E), Amaro (L), Pitavraksha (S).

Syn. S. mangifera Willd.

Plant latex is applied for wounds and cuts.

Plant juice is useful for dysentery and rheumatism [30] plant latex is used for bilious dyspepsia [33].

Latex is demulcent [27].

Alanine, amyrin, cystine, lignoceric acid, oleanolic acid, serine [27, 100].

Flavonoids of the plant have been known to inhibit intestinal motility and hydroelectrolytic secretion, which are known to be altered for diarrhoeal conditions [168].

14.

⊗Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Sapindaceae Macassar tree, Honey tree, Lac host tree (E), Kusum (N).

Syn. S. trijuga Willd

Fruits are eaten as an anthelmintic.

Fruits are used for heat stroke, and valued as appetite stimulant [30], anthelmintic and tonic [33].

Seed oil is used for skin diseases [27].

Behemin, campesterol, gadoleic acid, oleic acid, oxalic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, tartaric acid [27].

Fruit juice stimulates hair growth [169].

15.

Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don Ericaceae Chimal (N) 89/00.

Syn. R. wallichii Hook.f.

Flowers are used in body ache and throat pain. Seeds aid digestion.

Flowers are useful for skin diseases [33].

Leaf extract is used for rheumatism and syphilis [147].

Amyrin, andromedotoxin, campanulin, chlorogenic acid, epifriedelinol, gallic acid, phenols, quercetin, ursolic acid [170, 171].

Plant andromedotoxin is poisonous to the livestock [136]. Good amount of phenols and ursolic acid in the plant help to reduce risk of cardiovascular diseases [129, 171] and cancer [172, 173].

16.

♥Boehmeria platyplylla D.Don Urticaceae Chinese grass (E), Kamle (L), Gargalo (N).

Syn. B. macrostachya Wedd.

Root paste is applied on control bleeding.

Root juice is given for stomachache [28] and dysentery [30].

Plant juice is poisonous to fish [147].

Acetophenone, cryptopleurine, secophenanthroqlinolizidine [174].

Leaf juice is applied on cuts and wounds [174].

17.

♥•⊗Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees Acanthaceae Creat (E), Kitatikta, Kalmegh (N), Bhunimbah (S).

Syn. A. subspathulata Clarke.

Raw plant root juice is considered as antipyretic and effective against infections.

Plant is useful for curing malarial and intermittent fever, dysentery and liver disorders [32].

Plant is effective for dermatologial diseases [27]. It is useful in malarial and intermittent fevers [175].

Andrographolide, caffeic acid, kalmeghin, neoandrographolide, panicolide.

Plant is immunostimulant [58], anti-inflammatory [53], antibacterial [59], analgesic [60] and antiprotozoal [61]. Kalmeghin increases biliary flow and liver weight [175] and aids intestinal digestion [176] and liver protection [177, 178].

18.

•Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. ex. Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae Tallow tree (E), Khirro (N).

Milky latex is skin irritant and sprayed as fish poison in stream and tributaries.

Bark latex is used to dispel works and germs for livestock [33].

Latex is vesicant [147].

Corilagin, guijaverin, nicotiflorin, phorbol esters, quinic acid, rutin, scopolin [179].

Leaf extract is used for snake bite [180].

19.

⊗Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae Negunda Chaste tree (E), Simali (N), Nirgundhi (L), Shephali (S).

Syn. V. cannabilifolia Sieb. & Zucc.

Leaf juice is useful in stomachache.

Plant juice is used for headache [28]. Leaf juice is useful for gastric troubles [30] and used for common cold, fever and dermatitis [31].

Plant is used for fever and nerve defects [21].

Agnusid, aucubin, casticin, hentriacontane, luteolin nishidine, peduncularisid, vanilic acid, vitexin [100, 181].

Leaf extract shows antibacterial [103] and weak antifungal properties [104] and it is good for lowering blood glucose levels [105], cancer treatment [106] and acne control [107]. It is useful for inhibition of edema [108, 109] and tracheal contraction [110].

20.

♥⊗Skimmia anquetilia N.P. Taylor & Airy Shaw Rutaceae Chillo pate (L), Narpati (N).

Leaf infusion is taken for headache and for freshness.

Leaves are aromatic and used for headache and general fever [15, 33].

--

Linalool, geraniol, pinene, scopoletin, skimmianine, umbelliferone [181, 182].

Linalool could possess anxiolytic effect [137].

21.

⊗Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara Polygonaceae Pirrhe (N).

Syn. Polygonum barbata Linn.

Stem juice is useful for boils and pimples.

Root paste is applied on the scabies, wounds and swollen parts [28, 30].

Stem decoction is useful for ulcers [147].

--

Leaves are astringent, rubifacient and vermifuge [183]. Plant decoction is used to relieve pain and rheumatism [184].

22.

♥•Bauhinia variegata L. Fabaceae Mountain ebony (E), Koiralo (N), Kachnar, Kovidarah (S).

Syn. B. candida Ait.

Flower and floral buds are eaten regularly to cure leucorrhoea and mumps.

Flower juice is taken for dysentery and diarrhea [30]. Dried flowers are given for diarrhea, dysentery and piles [31]. Fresh flowers are used as laxative [32].

Flowers are astringent and used for diarrhea and hemorrhage [21].

Butein, hentriacontane, lupeol, nicotiflorin, octacosanol, rhamnopyranoside.

Methanol extract of B. variegata bark showed the most remarkable activity as antimicrobial [185] and anticancer [186].

23.

Ficus religiosa Linn. Moraceae Peepal tree (E), Pipal (N), Aswatha (S).

Bark juice is applied for paralysis.

Bark is astringent, and its decoction is given for gonorrhoea and skin disease [30, 31].

Bark is astringent, and used for hemorrhage and healing external wounds [21].

Phytosterolin, vitamin K, tannins.

Methanolic extract of stem bark is useful for memory longevity [187] and used as an analgesic [188]. Phytosterolin is CNS stimulant and hypoglycemic [189].

24.

•⊗Equisetum diffusum D. Don Equisetaceae Spreading horsetail (E), Ankhle jhar (L), Kurkure (N), 0555/00.

Plant stem juice is given for gonorrhea.

Plant root juice is given for urinary troubles [30], sprains, fractures, burns and scabies [33].

Plant is diuretic and useful for gonorrhea [147].

Apigenin, ascorbic acid, equisetolic acid, folic acid, kaemferol, niacin, silic acid [101, 190].

Methanolic plant extract shows good free radical scavenging activity [191].

25.

♥⊗Parnassia nubicola Wall. Parnassiaceae Mamira (N), 205/00.

Root paste is applied for eye inflammation.

Root paste is useful for wounds [30], body ache, headache, and eye problems [15, 33].

--

--

Methanolic root extract showed moderate anti-inflammatory effect [192].

26.

•⊗Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Myricaceae Box myrtle Bay berry, (E), Kafal (N), Kumbhi, Kaidaryama (S), 567/00.

Syn. M. fraquhariana Wall.

Fruits are eaten for dysentery and bark decoction is given for bronchitis.

Bark is useful for cough, asthma, sinusitis [31] and chronic bronchitis, diarrhea and dysentery [32].

Bark decoction is useful for asthma, dysentery and lung affections [147].

Friedelin, myricanone, myricadiol, myricanol, myricitrin, taraxerol [181].

Methanolic root extract showed potent anti-inflammatory effect [193].

27.

Arisaema flavum (Forsk.) Schott Araceae Banko (N), 562/00.

Rhizome juice is applied on earache and skin diseases. Young shoots are cooked as vegetable.

Leaves are consumed as a laxative [15]. Tubers are used for toothache, stomachache and chest infection [29].

--

Alanine, ariseminone, asparagine, cysteine, glycine, norvaline, ornithine [100].

Methanolic tuber extracts revealed weak antiviral property [194].

28.

♥•⊗Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Neem tree, Margosa tree (E), Neem (N), Aristha, Nimbah (S).

Syn. Melia azadirachta L.

Both raw and dried leaves are used for fever and blood disorders (no other information given).

Leaves are anthelmintic and good for cough, asthma, piles and urinary discharge [31]. They are used for malarial and intermittent fever, liver complaint and diabetes [32].

Leaves are used for skin diseases and blood circulatory defects [21] and useful for ulcers, sores, swellings and wounds [25].

Azadirachtin, gedunin, limonoids, linoleic acid, nimbin, nimbidin, oleic acid, stearic acid [195].

Nimbidin possesses anti-inflammatory [170], analgesic [196], antipyretic [49], antiulcer, anticholinergic, antihistaminic and antinicotinic effects [197]. Bark extract is useful as antibacterial [198] and antisplasmodial [199]. Leaf extract promotes wound healing, ulcer protective [200] and hypoglycaemic [201].

29.

♥•⊗Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae Malabar catmint (E), Ratocharpate (N), 167/00. Syn. A. ovata R.Br.

Leaf extract is useful for urinary complaints (no other information given).

Plant is astringent, tonic and its juice is useful for urinary affections [30, 33].

Plant is taken for uterine affections [147].

Alanine, anisomelic acid, apigenin, amyrin, β sitosterol, behemic acid, betulin, cerotic acid, malabaric acid, ovatodiolide, pedallitin, stearic acid, stigmasterol [27, 181].

Ovatodiolide and pedallitin of Anisomeles indica is good anti-inflammatory [202]. Pre-flowering plant water extract is analgesic [203]. Ethanolic leaf extract is strong antiviral [204] and anti HIV potential [205].

30.

♥⊗Lichen species Lichen Lichen (E), Jhyau (N), KU 07267.

Lichen extract and decoction is applied to treat moles.

Paste is used as ointment and antibiotic for cuts and wounds [31].

Lichen is cardiac tonic [147].

Atranorin, barbatic acid, norstictic acid, usnic acid, vulpinic acid [112].

Parmelia species are antimicrobial and used to treat warts [118, 119] and cranial diseases [206].

31.

•⊗Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. Pinaceae Himalayan Silver Fir (E), Gobre Salla (L,N), Talispatra (N,S).

Syn. Pinus tinctoria Wallich ex D. Don

Leaves are sniffed for cough and cold.

Plant needle oil is valued for colds and nasal congestions [30]. Leaf decoction is used for cough and bronchitis [32].

Plant is considered to be used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, anorexia, abdominal lump, indigestion and tuberculosis [22].

β pinene, camphene, carvone, catechin, catechutannic acid, ephedrine, taxine, taxinine[24, 32].

Pinene of Abies leaves is anti-inflammatory and antidepressant [207]. Plant extract with the ephedrine should always be used with caution in patients with hypertension [38, 208].

32.

♥⊗Quercus lanata Sm. Fagaceae Wooly oak (E), Latyaz (L), Baanjh (N).

Syn. Q. lanuginosa D.Don

Heart wood is taken as tea and it is laxative in nature.

Resin is useful for soothing body ache [30]. Dry resin is taken to treat dysentery [33].

--

Cyclobalanone, friedelin, pelagonodin, sitosterol, tannins [100].

Resin and bark tannin is anti-inflammatory [122, 209].

33.

Solena heterophylla Lour. Cucurbitaceae Ban kankri (N) KU 07255.

Syn. Melothria heterophylla L.

Fruits are eaten for common cold and pneumonia of child.

Fruits are useful for throat pain and fever [28].

Root juice is useful for dysuria and spermatorrhoea [147].

Behemic acid, columbin, lignoceric acid [210].

Plant extract is hepato-protective and plant coumarin and flavonoids inhibit platelet aggregation [211].

34.

⊗Osmanthes fragrans Lour. Oleaceae Tree Jasmine (E), Siringe (N), KU 07244.

Syn. O. acuminatus (Wall.) Nakai

Leaf juice is taken for fever and cold.

Stem bark is valued for boils, cough and retinitis [30, 33].

Leaf juice is tonic [147].

Caffeic acid, catechin, gallic acid, leuropin, ligustroside, luteolin, oleanolic acid, phillyrin, succinic acid [100].

Plant extract has antioxidant and melanogenesis inhibitory effects [212, 213] and neuroprotective property [214].

35.

♥⊗Fragaria nubicola Lindl. Rosaceae Alpine strawberry (E), Bhuikafal (N), KU 07242.

Syn. F. vesca L.

Fruit paste heals skin diseases and wounds.

Plant juice is useful for inflammation of the nerves and lungs [29]. Root juice is taken for fever [33].

Fruits are astringent and diuretic [147].

Carotenoids, ellagic acid, flavonoids [215].

Ellagic acid of the plant is responsible for antioxidant activity [128]. Plant extract is antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory [101, 131].

36.

♥Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Zingiberaceae Zeodory, Turmeric (E), Sathi, Kachur (L), Haldi (N) Ban haldi, Haridra, Harita (S) KU 07259.

Syn. C. longa L.

Rhizome paste is externally applied for paralysis.

Rhizome paste is externally applied to bruises, pains and injuries [31].

Tuber is used for skin diseases and urinary complaints [21]. Fresh tuber juice is antiparasitic and useful for skin affections [25].

Anthraquinone, borneol, campesterol, camphene, caryoplhylene, cineole, curcumin curdione, curzerenone, curlone, eugenol, limonene, linalool, terpinene [100, 210].

Curcumin is anti-inflammatory [78–80], antiviral [82], antifungal [83], antispasmodic [86] and hepato-protective [87]. It is also useful for AIDS [90, 91] control blood pressure [93]. Plant extract is antimutagenic [216].

37.

•Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) Linn. Fabaceae Aankuri phul (N), Visnukravita (S).

Decoction of plant is taken for increase memory.

Ash of the plant is spread on boils and pimples [30]. Plant paste is applied on scorpion sting, burns and scabies [33].

Plant is brain stimulant, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic and antidysenteric [217].

β sitosterol, betaine, evolvine, linoleic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid [181].

Plant extract is analgesic, CNS depressant [218] and has anthelmintic, wound healing [219, 220] and antibacterial properties [221].

38.

Sterculia villosa Roxb. Sterculiaceae Sterculia, Odaal tree (E), Odaal (N).

Syn. Firmiana fulgens (Wall. Ex Master) Corner

Stem bark is considered as an astringent. It is used for cooking breads.

White exudes of the tree is used for throat infection. Root infusion is taken as food adjunct [33].

--

--

Plant extract is useful for skin disease [222].

39.

⊗Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. Rosaceae Nepali white thorn (E), Ghangaru (N).

Fruits are eaten for dysentery.

Fruit powder is used for blood dysentery [30, 33].

--

Pyracrenic acid, sorbitol, tannin [223].

Pyracrenic acid is anti-inflammatory [223].

40.

♥⊗Phytolacca acinosa Phytolaccaceae Pokeberry (E), Jaringo (N).

Syn. P. latbenia (Moq.) H. Walter

Vegetable is consumed for body ache (no other information given).

Plant is narcotic and purgative in properties [30].

--

Acinosolic acid, jailigonic acid, lectins, oleanolic acid, myricadol, phytolaccagenin, spergulagenic acid, zonarol [32, 100].

Root extract shows weak triosinase inhibitory activity i.e. Skin whitening [224]. Saponin extracts from Phytolacca demonstrated anti-inflammatory [225], antifungal [226] and anti-viral effects [227].

41.

Smilax aspera Wall. Smilacaceae Rough birdweed (E), Chopchini (L), Kukurdaina (N), 101/00.

Syn. S. capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Root decoction is used for venereal disease.

Root extract cures scabies [30] and purifies blood [33].

--

Asparagenin, engelitin, parallin, pseudogenin, rutinoside, sarsapogenin, smilogenin, tannin [126, 228].

Stem juice is used for dropsy and gout [229]. Rutinoside is cancer inhibitory [230].

42.

♥⊗Ficus auriculata Lour. Moraceae Eve's apron (E), Timila (N).

Syn. F. roxburghii Wall

Stem juice is considered effective against diarrhea and fruits are consumed for dysentery.

Bark juice and roasted figs are useful for diarrhea and dysentery [28, 30].

--

β sitosterol, epifriedelanol, friedelin [100].

Tannins of the bark extract may reveal anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities [231].

43.

♥•⊗Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbiaceae Snake weed, Asthma weed (E), Dudhi jhar (N), Pusitoba (S). Syn. E. pilulifera L.

Plant latex is applied for cuts. Plant juice is applied in asthma and diarrhea.

Plant juice is useful for boils, cuts and wounds [30] and is considered to be used in treatment of asthma and cough [32].

It is useful for cardiovascular complaints, asthma and spleen disorders [27].

Galloylquinic acid, Phorbol acid, leucocyanidol, quercitol, camphol, quercetin, chlorophenolic acid, shikimic acid [100].

Plant alkaloid is effective in broncho-dilation [27], and used as an antispasmodic, antiasthmatic, expectorant, anticatarrhal [74, 232]. The methanol extract of flowers has antibacterial activity [75].

44.

⊗Jurinea dolomiea Bioss. Asteraceae Bhutkes (N) KU 07266.

Syn. Carduus macrocephalus Wall.

Root decoction is taken in stomachache and diarrhea.

Root is used for stomachache and diarrhea [29]. Root juice is taken for cough and cold [30].

--

Vasicine.

Vasicine exhibited strong respiratory stimulant, moderate hypotensive, cardiac-depressant and abortifacient [233].

45.

♥•⊗Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Menispermaceae Heart leaved Moonseed (E), Gurjo (N), Guduchi, Amritavali (S).

Syn. T. cordifolia auct. non L.

Dilute stem juice is drunk for diabetes.

Stem juice is valued for dysentery, diabetes, gonorrhoea [31], genital disorders and diabetes [32].

Stem is used for urinary diseases and hepatitis [21]. Stem juice is antipyretic, antiperiodic and alterative [25].

Berberine, choline, cordifol, isocolumbin, jatrorhizine, magnoflorine, palmatine, tembeterine, tinosporin, tinosporide [27].

Water extract (berberine) is antipyretic [234] and antidiabetic [66] due to berberine [68] but higher doses may be antagonistic [69]. Plant extract is hepato-protective [235], hypoglycaemic [67] and immunostimulant [236].

46.

♥⊗Betula utilis D.Don Betulaceae Himalayan Birch (E), Bhuj pat (L), Bhojpatra (N), Bhurjah, Lekhyapatrak (S), 556/00.

Syn. B. bhojpattra Lindl.

Bark decoction is useful for sore throat.

Bark is used for bacterial infections, skin diseases, bronchitis cough [15, 33], and cuts, wounds and burns [30].

Bark is astringent and its fume is used for easy delivery and placenta expels [21].

Betulin, karachic acid, leucocyanidin, lupenone, lupeol, oleanolic acid.

Bark extract is antiseptic [100]. Betulinic acid is anti-inflammatory [237].

47.

♥•⊗Aesculus indica (Colebr. ex Cambess.) Hook. Hippocastanaceae Horse chesnut (E), Panger, Karu (N), Naaru (S), Horse 563/00.

Seed oil is valued for joint pain and skin problems (no other information given).

Seed oil is used for scabies and skin diseases [15, 30, 33].

Bark is used for dislocated joints and seed oil is considered to be used for rheumatism [147].

Aescin, aesculuside, astragalin, β sitosterol, catechol, decanoic acid, epicatechin, quercetin, rutin, saponins [100].

Plant is used for delaying hypersensitivity [238]. Aescin is cardio-stimulant and anti-inflammatory [239].

48.

♥⊗Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Thymelaeaceae Nepali paper plant (E), Gore, Baruwa (L), Lokta, Kagaj pate (N).

Syn. D. cannabina Lour. ex Wall.

Seeds are taken for stomachache and anthelmintic.

Root extract is used for intestinal disorder and powered seeds are taken as an anthelmintic [28].

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Daphnoside, daphnetin, genkwanin, luteolin, taraxerol [100].

Bark decoction is given to treat fever. Root juice is anthelmintic [240].

  1. E = English, L = Local, N = Nepali, S = Sanskrit, Syn. = Synonymous
  2. ⊗ = Species's use resembled with the common uses of Ayurveda, • = Species's use resembled with earlier reports, ♥ = Species's use resembled with latest common phytochemical findings