Table 6 The list of wild food plants used in Poland since the 19th century.

Acer platanoides L.

Aceraceae

H

1, 2, 5

sap

raw and fermented

A

1

cambium

raw

A

1

fruits

raw

A

1

opening leaf buds

fermented

A

1, 5

leaves

under baking bread

Acer pseudoplatanus L.

A

1, 2

sap

raw

A

1

leaf buds

raw, ff

Aegopodium podagraria L.

Apiaceae

A

3, 5, 6

young leaves

soup

Carum carvi L.

H

1, 2, 5

seeds

spice

A

1

young plants

soup

Daucus carota L.

A

5, 6

roots, leaves, fruits

soup, spice

Heracleum sphondylium L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5, 6

leaves and flowering stalks

soup

Pastinaca sativa L.

O

1, 2, 6

roots

cooked foods

Acorus calamus L.

Araceae

H

1, 2, 5

inner parts of stems

raw

H

1, 5

leaves

under baking bread

Achillea millefolium L.

Asteraceae

A

4, 5, 6

leaves

raw and as spice

Arctium sp.

A

3

leaf stalks

lacto-fermented

A

6

roots

boiled

Artemisia absinthium L.

O

6

leaves

spice for meat

Bellis perennis L.

N

2

unspecified

unspecified

A

5, 6

flowers

raw

Carlina acaulis L.

H

1, 2, 3

receptacles, roots

unknown

Carlina vulgaris L.

U

1

unspecified parts

unkown

Centaurea cyanus L.

H

1

petals

fermented drink

Chamomilla recutita (L.)Rauschert

L

2

shoots

infusion

Cichorium intybus L.

U

1, 6

leaves

boiled (ff), raw

L

1, 5, 6

roots

coffee surrogate

Cirsium oleraceum Scop.

A

1, 3, 4

leaves, roots

boiled, ff

Cirsium rivulare All.

H

1, 2, 3, 4

leaves

boiled, ff

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

H

2, 3, 4

leaves, stalks

boiled, ff

Sonchus arvensis L.

LU

1, 3

green parts

raw

Taraxacum sp. pl.

A

1, 5

inflorescences

syrup, wine

H

1, 2, 5

leaves

raw, boiled

Tragopogon pratensis L. s.l.

H

2

stalks

raw

Tussilago farfara L.

A

1

leaves

boiled, ff

Berberis vulgaris L.

Berberidaceae

H

1, 2, 3

fruits

raw, preserves

Alnus sp.

Betulaceae

O

2

Betula pendula Roth & Betula pubescens Ehrh.

H

1, 2, 5

sap

raw or fermented

H

1

leaf buds

fermented

H

1, 2

cambium

flour, ff

Anchusa arvensis (L.) M.Bieb.

Boraginaceae

A

3

shoots

boiled, ff

Echium vulgare L.

A

6

flowers

nectar sucked

Pulmonaria obscura L.

AR

1

leaves

boiled, ff

Symphytum officinale L.

H

1, 2, 3

leaves

boiled, ff

H

2, 6

flowers

nectar sucked

A

6

roots

boiled (ff?)

Armoracia rusticana P.Gaertn., B.Mey,&Scherb.

Brassicaceae

H

1, 2, 5

roots

spice

A

1

leaves

under baking bread or as spice

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)Medik.

A

1, 2

fruits

raw

A

5, 6

whole plant?

boiled

Cardamine amara L.

RU

3

leaves

raw

Cardamine pratensis L.

A

3

leaves

ff

Raphanus raphanistrum L.

H

1, 2, 3, 4

leaves

boiled, ff

Sinapis arvensis L.

H

1, 2, 3, 4

leaves

boiled, ff

Campanula persicifolia L.

Campanulaceae

L

1, 6

flowers

raw

Phyteuma spicatum L.

L

1

roots

unspecified

Humulus lupulus L.

Cannabaceae

O

1, 2, 5

inflorescences and fruits

beer, mead, bread

O

1

probably shoots

ff

Sambucus nigra L.

Caprifoliaceae

H

1, 2, 3, 5, 6

fruits

boiled: wine, jam, soup, rarely raw

O

3, 5

flowers

fried in batter or preserves

Viburnum opulus L.

A

1, 2, 5

fruits

boiled: wine, juice, jam

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke

Caryophyllaceae

A

3

shoots

boiled, ff

Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

N

3

shoots

boiled, ff

Euonymus verrucosus Scop.

Celastraceae

A

5

fruits

added to wine?

Atriplex patula L.

Chenopodiaceae

L?

1

leaves

boiled, fried

Chenopodium album L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

leaves

boiled, fried

Chenopodium bonus-henricus L.

A

1, 3

leaves

boiled, fried

Chenopodium hybridum L.

A

3

leaves

boiled, fried

Chenopodium polyspermum L.

A

3

leaves

boiled, fried

Chenopodium polyspermum L.

A

3

leaves

boiled, fried

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Convolvulaceae

H

1, 2, 3

shoots

boiled, ff

Carpinus betulus L.

Corylaceae

H

1

sap

raw

Corylus avellana L.

H

1, 3

inflorescences, leaves

ff, mainly for flour

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

raw and in cakes

Juniperus communis L.

Cupressaceae

O

1, 2, 5

pseudofruits

spice, beer, snack

Scirpus sylvaticus L.

Cyperaceae

A

1, 6

inner parts of young shoots

raw

Pteridium aquilinum L.

Dennstaedtiaceae

LU

1

rhizomes

unspecified, ff

Empetrum nigrum L.

Empetraceae

A

1

fruits

unspecified

Equisetum arvense L.

Equisetaceae

H

1, 2, 6

strobils

raw, cooked

A

2, 6

bulbils

raw

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull ON

Ericaceae

L

1

seeds

bread, ff

Vaccinium myrtillus L.

H

1, 2, 3

fruit

raw, boiled

Vaccinium oxycoccos L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruit

raw or in preserves

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruit

raw or in preserves

Vaccinium uliginosum L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

Euphorbia peplus L.

Euphorbiaceae

L

1

whole plant

boiled, ff

Astragalus glycyphyllos L.

Fabaceae

A

5, 6

stalks

raw

Medicago lupulina L.

A

6

thickened parts of the roots

raw

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

H

2

flowers

raw, jams

Trifolium pratense L., T. repens L., T. montanum L.

H

1, 2

inflorescences

nectar sucked or dried for baking bread

Vicia sp. pl.

L

1, 2

seeds

flour for bread, ff

Fagus sylvatica L.

Fagaceae

H

1, 3

fruits

raw or baked, oil

Quercus robur L. & Q. petraea Mattuschka (Liebl.)

H

1

fruits

flour (ff), coffee surrogate

Ribes alpinum L.

Grossulariaceae

A

5

fruits

raw (rarely)

Ribes alpinum L. or R. petraeum Wulfen

NR

1

fruits

raw

Ribes nigrum L.

H

1, 2, 6

fruits

raw, jams

H

1, 6

leaves

spice

Ribes spicatum Robson

H

2, 6

fruits

raw, jams

Ribes uva-crispa L.

O

2, 3

fruits

raw

Stratiotes aloides L.

Hydrocharitaceae

H

2

leaves, roots

boiled, ff

Dracocephalum ruyschiana L.

Lamiaceae

A

5

flowers

nectar sucked

Galeopsis sp.

A

1

leaves

boiled, ff

Glechoma hederacea L. s.l.

H

1, 2, 3

leaves

spice

Lamium sp pl. (mainly L. album L.)

A

3

shoots

boiled

Lamium purpureum L.

A

5

shoots

boiled

Melittis melisophyllum L.

LU

1

leaves

unspecified, ff; liquors

A

6

flowers

nectar sucked

Mentha arvensis L.

H

1, 6

leaves

spice, infusions, raw

Mentha longifolia (L.)Hudson

H

1

leaves

spice

Origanum vulgare L.

A

1

flowering tops

beer condiment

Prunella vulgaris L.

N

4

shoots

boiled, ff

Stachys palustris L.

H

2, 3

rhizomes

raw, boiled

Thymus pulegioides L.

H

l

flowering tops

spice, teas

Thymus serpyllum L.

H

1, 5

flowering tops

spice, teas

Lemna minor L.

L

1

leaves

fried, ff

Allium ursinum L.

Liliaceae

LU

1

roots

spice

O

1, 5, 6

leaves

raw

Allium sp.

N

2

?

?

Maianthemum bifolium (L.) F. W. Schmidt

H

1, 3

fruits

raw, wine

Viscum album L.

Loranthaceae

H

2

fruits

raw

Malva neglecta Wallr.

Malvaceae

H

1, 2

leaves

boiled

H

1, 2, 5

immature fruits

raw

Malva sylvestris L.

H

1, 2

leaves

boiled

H

1, 2

immature fruits

raw

Fraxinus excelsior L.

Oleaceae

O

5, 6

fruits

boiled, ff

Oenothera sp.

Onagraceae

A

6

roots

boiled

Oxalis acetosella L.

Oxalidaceae

H

1, 2, 3, 5, 6

leaves

raw, cooked

Oxalis stricta L. s.l.

H

1, 2

leaves

raw, cooked

Papaver rhoeas L.

Papaveraceae

N

2, 5

seeds

unspecified

Abies alba Mill.

Pinaceae

O

1

young shoots

syrup

Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.

O

1

young shoots

raw, syrup

O

1

male inflorescences

raw

O

1

young cones

raw

O

2

cambium

ff

Pinus cembra L.

O

1

male inflorescences

raw

O

1

seeds

raw

Pinus sylvestris L.

O

5

young vegetative and generative shoots

raw, syrup

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantaginaceae

L

1, 2, 6

leaves

boiled, raw

Bromus secalinus L.

Poaceae

A

1, 2, 3

seeds

ground for flour, ff

Dactylis glomerata L.

A

1

stem base

raw

Elymus repens (L.) Gould

H

1

rhizomes

ground for flour

Festuca pratensis L.

LU

1

seeds

unspecified

Glyceria fluitans (L.) R. Br.

A

1

seeds

seeds, boiled or for flour

Glyceria plicata Fries

L

1

seeds

seeds, boiled or for flour

Phleum pratense L.

N

2

seeds

for flour, ff

Setaria pumila (Poir.) Schult. or/and Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv.

NR

3

seeds

boiled

Fallopia convolvulus (L.) AA.Löve

Polygonaceae

H

3

shoots

boiled, ff

Polygonum hydropiper L.

A

5

leaves

raw

Polygonum lapathifolium L. ssp. pallidum

H

1

shoots

fried, ff

Rumex acetosa L.

H

1, 3, 5

leaves

raw, cooked

Rumex acetosella L.

H

1, 3

leaves

raw, cooked

Rumex crispus L.

A

6

leaves

cooked

Rumex crispus L. or R. obtusifolius L.

A

5, 6

fruit

boiled, ff

Rumex hydrolapathum Huds.

A

6

leaves

cooked

Rumex obtusifolius L.

HU

2

leaves

for compotes

Rumex thyrsiflorus Fing.

H

2

leaves

raw, cooked

Rumex crispus L.

L

1

leaves, seeds

flour, ff

Polypodium vulgare L.

Polypodiaceae

H

1,2,3

rhizomes

raw or cooked as sweetener

Ranunculus ficaria L.

Ranunculaceae

A

1, 3, 6

leaves

boiled, raw

Nigella sp.

L

1

seeds

spice

Nigella arvensis L.

A

6

seeds

spice

Frangula alnus Miller

Rhamnaceae

NU

2

fruits

jams

Alchemilla sp.

Rosaceae

L

1

leaves

boiled, ff

Crataegus sp. pl.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruit

raw, wine, jams

A

6

flowers

raw

Fragaria vesca L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruit

raw, wine, jams

Malus domestica Borkh. (feral plants)

O

1, 2, 3, 5

fruit

raw, compotes or in sauerkraut

Potentilla anserina L.

L

1

young shoots

raw

Prunus avium L.

O

1

fruits

raw, compotes

O

1

solidified sap

raw

Prunus padus L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

mainly raw

Prunus spinosa L.

H

1, 2, 3

fruits

raw, compotes, jams, wine

Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd. & Pyrus communis L. em. Gaertner

O

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

raw, dried, pickled

Rosa sp. pl. (mainly Rosa canina L.)

H

1, 2, 5

fruits

raw, wine, jams, infusions

Rubus caesius L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

raw, wine, jams, infusions

Rubus idaeus L.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

raw, wine, jams, infusions

Rubus L. sect. Rubus sp. pl.

H

1, 2, 3, 5

fruits

raw, wine, jams, infusions

Rubus saxatilis L.

A

1, 2, 5

fruits

raw, juice

Sedum maximum (L.) Hoffm.

H

2

thick roots

unspecified

Sorbus aucuparia L. emend. Hedl.

H

1, 2, 3, 5, 6

fruits

wine, jams, liqueur, rarely as spice

Galium odoratum (L.) Scop.

Rubiaceae

H

2

flowering shoots

spice, infusions

V. beccabunga L. or V. anagallis-aquatica L.

Scrophulariaceae

A

3

shoots

raw

Tilia cordata Miller & Tilia platyphyllos Scop.

Tiliaceae

H

1, 2

flowers

infusion

O

2

cambium

raw

O

3

seeds

oil

O

3, 4

leaves

boiled or into flour, ff

Trapa natans L.

Trapaceae

L

1

leaves

raw, boiled, flour

Typha latifolia L.

Typhaceae

A

5, 6

shoots and rhizomes

boiled, roasted

Ulmus sp.

Ulmaceae

N

2

fruits, leaves

unspecified

Urtica dioica L. & Urtica urens L.

Urticaceae

H

1, 2, 3

shoot tops

boiled, infusions

Parthenocissus sp.

Vitaceae

H

2

fruits

fermented drink

Viola arvensis Murr.

Violaceae

A

5

flowers

raw