Table 1 Folk names and uses of plants and fungi quoted in the current study, compared with those recorded one century ago in the same area

Abies alba Mill. and Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. (Pinaceae)

Bren

W

Resin (smol*)

MEDICINAL: topically applied to wounds, sometimes together with tobacco (as haemostatic) or on warts

Breh MEDICINAL: resin (smol*) as an ingredient of a home-made poultice (mehlem) - made also by adding wax, fat, and powdered pine wood – for treating wounds

Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Sapindaceae)

Klenje*

W

Wood

HANDICRAFTS: diverse objects, among them, snow shoes

Pani

Kleni*

Bark

VETERINARY: decoction, in external washes for treating wounds in animals

Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae)

Lule e bardhë

W

Dried flowering aerial parts

MEDICINAL: tea, considered healthy for stomach-ache and liver problems; traded in the past

Lule miu

Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae)

Qepa

C

Bulbs

FOOD: many culinary uses, including home-made savory pies called ndri, filled with buttermilk (dhallët) and diverse vegetables; MEDICINAL: compresses made with crushed onions and salt for treating bruises RITUAL: burned on the fire

Qep FOOD: filling for savory pies MEDICINAL: externally applied with salt on wounds

Allium porrum L. (Amaryllidaceae)

Prash*

C

Fresh aerial parts

FOOD: filling for home-made savory pies (ndri)

Prasa

Juice

MEDICINAL: instilled in the ear for treating ear-ache

Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)

Hudra

C

Bulbs

FOOD: seasoning

Hudr

RITUAL: burned on the fire; the resulting strong odour was considered a repellent for werewolves; tied to cow horns as a protective amulet against evil-eye

Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. (Betulaceae)

Verri

W

Bark

DYEING: the bark was boiled in the past; the resulting red decoction was used for dyeing in black

Verri

Amaranthus spp. (Amaranthaceae)

Llabot e egër

W

Leaves

FODDER

Arctium lappa L. (Asteraceae)

Kakuda

W

Leaves

FODDER

Atriplex hortensis L. (Amaranthaceae)

Laboda*

C

Leaves

FOOD: most preferred filling for pies (ndri)

Labat*

Betula pendula Roth (Betulaceae)

Mustekna

W

Bark

MEDICINAL: burned; the vapours are exposed to the skin for treating skin inflammations HANDICRAFTS: brooms

Mushtekn

Boletus spp. (Boletaceae)

Këpurdha

W

Fresh fruiting body

FOOD: stored dried and sold to middle men; traditionally it was not consumed, nowadays is sometimes used in omelettes with eggs and cheese, or as a filling for savory pies

(Varganj*)

Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae)

Lakna

C

Leaves

FOOD: in diverse preparations

Lakna FOOD: filling for savory pies; lactofermented, in sarma (sauerkraut leaves filled with rice and meat) or minced in salads

Calamintha officinalis Mill. (Lamiaceae)

W

Fresh leaves

MEDICINAL: externally applied to treat toothache

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. (Cantharellaceae)

Kepurdha

W

Fruiting body

FOOD: consumed fried with eggs and clarified butter

(Lisiçarka*)

Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae)

Spec (sweet varieties)

C

Dried fruits

FOOD: as a vegetable, fried; mixed with ricotta (gjizë) and consumed after a few weeks; ground, as one of the ingredients of the home-made seasoning mixture called piprik e shtupun, prepared by mixing ground red peppers, chilli, pumpkin seeds, corn flour, mint, and salt (traditionally consumed on boiled potatoes or warm bread)

Spec

Piprik*

C

Dried fruits

FOOD: ingredient of the spice mix piprik e shtupun (see above)

(hot varieties)

MEDICINAL: ground and mixed with clarified butter or pork fat in a poultice, which is externally applied against rheumatisms

RITUAL: burned on the fire; the resulting strong odour is considered a repellent for werewolves (lugata)

Carlina acanthifolia All. (Asteraceae)

Thera

W

Fresh flower receptacles

FOOD: consumed raw as snacks

Kaçani*

Carpinus betulus L. (Betulaceae)

Dru kaprivë

W

Wood

HANDICRAFTS: diverse agricultural tools, including sickles

Carpinus orientalis Mill. (Betulaceae)

Gaber*

W

Bark

VETERINARY: decoction, in external washed on cuts

Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. (Parmeliaceae)

Mishk

W

Thallus

MEDICINAL: gathered and traded in the past

Chenopodium bonus-henricus L. (Amarathaceae)

Çuen*

W

Roots

FOOD: used in the past for making home-made halva* (Ottoman sweet prepared by gently stirring the decotion obtained by boiling these roots in water, with wheat and/or corn flour for one hour, and generally adding walnuts or raisins at the end, and letting it cool/solidify); the roots were also traded in the past

Çuen FOOD: home-made production of the sweet halva, made by cooking together roots, sugar syrup and powdered nuts - roots of çuen were erroneously identified by Doda as those of Saponaria spp. Upper Reka men were famous halva-sellers

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf. (Cucurbitaceae)

Bostan

B

Fruit pulp

FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw, considered a means for cleansing the intestines

Lubenicë*

Clematis vitalba L. (Ranunculaceae)

Kurpna

W

Branches

HANDICRAFTS: traditionally weaved in baskets used for bee-keeping

Pofit*

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT

(Dried?) flowers

FOOD: used in the past as bread yeast

Cornus mas L. (Cornaceae)

Thona

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD: consumed raw; FOOD/MEDICINAL: syrups and distillate (raki thonet) considered healthy, esp. for treating fever

Thon

Corylus avellana L. (Betulaceae)

Leithiza

W

Kernels

FOOD: consumed raw as snacks

Leithi

Branches

OTHERS: as structural supports for bean plants in the vegetable garden

Crataegus monogyna Jacq. var. sericea Dzekov (Rosaceae)

Murrisi

W

Dried flowers

MEDICINAL: tea, as an anti-hypertensive

Muris qeni RITUAL: child affected by measles was placed under a hawthorn plant and water was thrown on him/her

Fruits

FOOD: consumed as snack and in syrups and jams

Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae)

Kastraveca*

C

Fruits

FOOD: consumed raw, or, more often, lactofermented (turshi*)

Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (Cucurbitaceae)

Kungulla

C

Fruits

FOOD: filling for pies

Kungul FOOD: filling for pies (ndri)

Dried seeds

FOOD: consumed as snacks; ground and used as an ingredient of the home-made seasoning mixture piprik e shtupun (see Capsicum annuum)

Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae)

Lule gjarpi

W

Aerial parts

OTHERS: crushed and used for fishing trout (pastërmka) in the river (as a fish poison)

Lishanj

Fagus sylvatica L. (Fagaceae)

Ahu

W

Fresh young leaves and kernels

FOOD: consumed as a snack in the past

Ah

Branches and wood

FUEL

HANDICRAFTS: fences, diverse agricultural tools, “skeleton” of horse saddles and barns

Fomes fomentarius (L.) J. J. Kickx (Polyporaceae)

Eshka

W

Dried fruiting body

OTHERS: burned; the resulting smoke is used to keep away bees while gathering honey

Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae)

Drezdha

W

Fruits

FOOD: consumed raw

Drethsa

Fraxinus excelsior L. (Oleaceae)

Frashëri

W

Wood

HANDICRAFTS: for building flutes (kaval*)

Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae)

Shtarë e egëra

W

Roots

MEDICINAL: largely gathered and traded in the past; use unknown

Shatra e egër

Helleborus spp. (Ranunculaceae)

Kukurek*

W

Roots

MEDICINAL: inserted in the horse’s breast for treating muscular blocks (horses not able to be ridden anymore)

Kukurek VETERINARY: inserted into the nose to treat nasal congestion in horses

Helichrysum plicatum DC. (Asteraceae)

Lule për molca

W

Dried flowering tops

OTHERS: placed in the closets as a moth repellent

Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae)

Elb

C

Fruits

FOOD: consumed in the past in gruels with corn; FODDER for sheep

Elb

Hyosciamus niger L. (Solanaceae)

W

Dried flowers

MEDICINAL: burned and the smoke exposed to the mouth to treat toothache (in the past)

Hypericum perforatum L. (Hypericaceae)

Katrion*

W

Dried flowering tops

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating kidney stones, colds, stomach-ache, rheumatisms (used every day for at least a few months) or simply drunk as a “healthy” beverage; topically applied for treating wounds

Kantarion*

Çaj bistrë

Lule e verdhë

Fresh flowering tops

MEDICINAL: Macerate in oil (obtained by exposing it in the sun for several weeks) or prepare as a tea externally applied for treating skin burns, cuts, or other skin inflammations

Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)

Arra

SD

Kernels

FOOD: used for cakes; a specific pie (ndri) was prepared with walnuts and lamb meat, and consumed on feast days

Arr

Unripe fruits

FOOD/MEDICINAL: dipped in honey (and eventually lemon juice), the resulting preserve is considered healthy against tuberculosis and bronchitis

Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae)

Dëllinia

W

Galbules

FOOD: seasoning MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cough, rheumatisms and “good for the blood”; largely gathered and sold, especially in the past

Dulinj

Dried bark

OTHERS: smoked as a tobacco substitute

Lactuca sativa L. (Asteracaeae)

Marolla*

C

Fresh leaves

FOOD: salads

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae)

Patlixhan*

C

Fresh fruits

FOOD

Patlingjan kuq

Malus domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae)

Molla

SD

Fruits

FOOD/MEDICINAL: traditionally consumed raw, or roasted, or in pies or jams; the fruits of the most acidic landraces were used for producing home-made vinegar (adding water and letting ferment for 40 days) - this vinegar is considered healthy for treating hypertension

Moll

Fruits→Raki

MEDICINAL: drunk as a stimulant (anti-lethargic)

Matricaria recutita L. (Asteraceae)

Kamomila

W

Dried flowering aerial parts

MEDICINAL: tea for treating toothache, stomach-ache and belly pains (esp. in babies)

Cfarlik

Medicago sativa L. (Fabaceae)

Jonxhe

C

Aerial parts

FODDER

Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)

Milc

W

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT: considered the best honey plant

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Lamiaceae)

Nagjas i egër

W

Dried flowering tops

MEDICINAL: tea, as a stimulant (considered poisonous if drunk in large amounts)

Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae)

Nane

W and C

Dried leaves

FOOD: ground, used as an ingredient of the seasoning mix piprik e shtupun (see Capsicum annuum)

Nagjas

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating stomach and intestinal pains, esp. in children, or as an anti-diarrhoeal

Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae)

Duhan*

B

Dried crashed leaves

VETERINARY: externally applied on wounds or skin problems in sheep

MEDICINAL: external applications for treating wounds (mixed with honey)

Tutun*

Orchis spp. (Orchidaceae)

Salep* (two quoted “folk specifics”: one showing pink flowers and the other one with yellow flowers)

W

Dried tubers

MEDICINAL: ground, and then mixed with milk and dried again; the resulting powder is used in teas, as a “healthy” beverage (rarely macerated in plum distillate and drunk as a medicine); in the past largely gathered and sold

Broçka Salep FOOD: powdered orchid tubers were stirred with warm water and sugar; many young men from the upper Reka left their homes to work as salep, bosa and halva sellers in Skopje, Istanbul, Romania, and Bulgaria

Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)

Çaj*

W

Dried flowering aerial parts

MEDICINAL: tea for treating sore throat, cough, heart problems, intestinal discomforts, or as a recreational beverage

Çaj i malit

Çaj i livadhi*

Petasites hybridus (L.) Gaertn. (Asteraceae)

Kakuda Lapua

W

Leaves

FODDER

Kakuda

Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae)

Grosha*

C (brown and white landraces)

Dried seeds

FOOD: soups

Grosh FOOD: boiled, generally cooked together fresh or dried meat, adding bone marrow (galgo)

Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae)

Grashaka*

C

Seeds

FOOD: cooked with meat or potatoes

Nahut

Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae)

Lule deli

W

Leaves

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating kidney stones; externally applied for treating cuts

Bajsht delit MEDICINAL: external applications of leaves and roots for treating furuncles

Primula veris L. (Primulaceae)

Gornicfet*

W

Flowers

MEDICINAL: sold and traded in the past – use unknown

Garicfet

Prunus avium L. (Rosaceae)

Shurshia

SD

Fresh fruits

FOOD: consumed raw; syrups

Qershi

Prunus cerasus L. (Rosaceae)

Vishnja*

SD

Fruits

FOOD: consumed raw, or dried, or in syrups

Vishnja

Resin (smol*)

MEDICINAL: externally applied on skin inflammations

Prunus cerasus L. var. marasca (Host.) Viv. (Rosaceae)

Shurshia e egër

SD

Fruits

FOOD: consumed raw or dried, or in syrups

Prunus domestica L. (Rosaceae)

Kumbulla Gjagalka

SD (many diverse landraces, with yellow, red, and black fruits)

Fruits

FOOD: consumed raw or dried; cooked with sugar and dried, and consumed as candies; hoshaf* – thickened fruit juice preserve; it is diluted with water (and eventually sugar) and drunk

Kumla

Fresh fruits (fermented 1–2 months and then resulting must distilled)→raki*

MEDICINAL: instilled in the ear for treating earaches; drunk as a “healthy” beverage for the heart (rare) or to counteract tiredness; externally applied as a disinfectant for wounds

MEDICINAL: distillate externally applied on bullet wounds

Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)

Dardha

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD: consumed raw

Dardha

Rhamnus alpina L. (Rhamnaceae)

W

Fruits

FOOD: consumed as snacks

Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fabaceae)

Bagrem*

W

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT: the resulting honey is considered effective against cough

Rosa canina L. (s.l.) (Rosaceae)

Kaça Shipinka*

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD: jams

Kaç

Dried fruits

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold, fever, cough

Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae)

Medra

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw; syrup (sok*) and hoshaf* (dense thickened juice, diluted with water and drunk) are considered healthy

Medr

Mjedra

Malina*

Dried leaves

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold

Rubus schleicheri Weihe ex Tratt. and other Rubus spp. (Rosaceae)

Manaferra

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD: consumed raw; jams

Monca

Rumex acetosella L. (Polygonaceae)

Gisilica*

W

Fresh and dried leaves

FOOD: filling for pies (in the past leaves were dried and stored for the winter, then rehydrated in water and used as a fresh vegetable)

Gasilica

Kiselica*

Kisilica*

Rumex patientia L. (Polygonaceae)

Lepçeta

W

Fresh leaves

FOOD: filling for pie (peta)

Lipgjet FOOD: consumed boiled with/in dhalt (kind of Albanian buttermilk)

Salix alba L. and other Salix spp. (Salicaceae)

Shelçe

W

Fresh branches

HANDICRAFTS: weaved in diverse kinds of baskets (kosh*)

Shelçe MEDICINAL: steam baths for treating rheumatisms

Salvia verticillata L. (Lamiaceae)

Gamnash

W

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT: The honey obtained from bees visiting the plant is considered very effective against bronchitis

Sambucus ebulus L. (Adoxaceae)

Basdalina*

W

Fresh leaves

MEDICINAL: topically applied against snake bites

Shtog i egër

Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae)

Shtog

W

Flowers

FOOD/MEDICINAL: syrup (sok*) considered a cough remedy (expectorant); sometimes also given to children affected by belly pains to drink

Shtog

Fresh fruits

FOOD: syrups and jams

Wood

HANDICRAFTS: for building spindles*

Satureja montana L. (Lamiaceae)

Lis

W

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT

Secale cereale L. (Poaceae)

Thekna

C

Fruits

FODDER

Thekn FOOD: kurkurama - gruel made by rye, corn, wheat and beans

FOOD: roasted, as a coffee substitute*

Dried fruits (grounded)→Flour

FOOD: in the past used for baking sourdough bread (bukë çerepi) -prepared adding dhallët (buttermilk) and fermenting 2–3 days - and also for pies

FOOD: buk thekninta – sourdough bread; buk e persiet – sourdough bread made by mixing rye, wheat, and corn flours

Dried aerial parts (straw)

HANDICRAFTS: filling for horse saddles, pillows and mattresses

--

Sideritis spp. (Lamiaceae)

Çaj malit

B (brought from the town pazar/market, presumably gathered from mountainous areas nearby)

Dried flowering aerial parts

MEDICINAL: tea for treating cold

Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanaceae)

Repa*

C

Tubers

FOOD: traditionally consumed boiled with piprik e shtupun (see Capsicum annuum); fried, or roasted

Kampire

Kompira*

MEDICINAL: slices of a fresh tuber were externally applied on the forehead for treating headaches

Young leaves

FOOD: boiled and consumed as vegetables with buttermilk, or as filling for pies (especially in the past – however one elderly couple confirmed that they also consume them nowadays)

Syringa vulgaris L. (Oleaceae)

Ergovan*

C

Flowers

ORNAMENTAL

Ergavan

Tanacetum vulgare L. (Asteraceae)

Vratik*

W

Dried flowering tops

MEDICINAL: tea, as a digestive; in the past, the decoctions were externally used for washing children affected by rubella or persons affected by hepatitis* – for this last use sometimes the decoction was also drunk

VETERINARY: considered poisonous for calves

OTHERS: placed in closets as a moth repellent

Taraxacum officinale Weber (Asteraceae)

Bastë e egër

W

Fresh leaves

FOOD: eaten in spring salads

Thymus serpyllum L. (s.l.)

Lis Majçina dushnica*

W

Aerial parts

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating cold and cough

(Lamiaceae)

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT

Tilia cordata Mill. (Malvaceae)

Lipa*

SD

Dried inflorescences

MEDICINAL: tea, for treating colds

Blini

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT

Resin (smol*)

MEDICINAL: externally applied to skin inflammations

Trifolium spp. (Fabaceae)

Detelina*

W

Fresh flowers

HONEY PLANT;

Trfonj

FODDER: for cows, it is considered a galactagogue (promoting milk production)

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fabaceae)

Gruni piprikes

C

Dried aerial parts

FOOD: as an ingredient of the seasoning mix piprik e shtupun (see Capsicum annuum)

Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae)

Grur

C

Fruits

FOOD

Gruni FOOD: kukurama - gruel made by rye, corn, wheat and beans

Fruits (ground)→Flour

FOOD: bread and pies

FOOD: buk e ngjeshun – leavened bread; buk grunit – sourdough bread; buk e persiet – bread obtained mixing corn, rye, and wheat flours peçiv - kind of crusty bread, with a buttered inner part fli - a kind of crusty bread, made by several alternate layers of dough and butter, each layer is baked in sequence; koleç - bread made by diverse little bread units; ndurdhi - like fli, but with thicker layers, which are broken and finally dipped with melted butter bosa – a lacto-fermented beverage made with wheat flour, mixed with millet flour (or maize flour), which was boiled in water approx. 12 hrs.; the resulting mass was then knitted by hands and, after the adding of yeast, kept overnight, until it was dissolved in water; in the upper Reka, young men used to migrate to town as bosa producers and vendors in the Ottoman Empire

Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae)

Shurshia të egra

W

Fresh fruits

FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed raw, and sometimes believed to be “healthy for the blood”; syrups and jams; the fresh fruits are nowadays gathered in the summertime in large amounts and sold to middle men from Gostivar

Qyrshiat t egra

Baruk

Borovnica*

Dried leaves

MEDICINAL: tea, used for heart problems

Veratrum album L. (Melanthiaceae)

Shtarë

W

Roots

VETERINARY: decoctions, in external washes for treating lice in animals; root inserted in the horse’s breast for treating muscular blocks (horses can’t be ridden anymore)

Shtar VETERINARY: decoction of the roots was used for treating scabies in sheep

Fresh leaves

VETERINARY: considered poisonous if animals consume them in large amounts (foaming at the mouth)

VETERINARY: Consuming large amounts of the leaves of the same plant was considered poisonous in sheep (foaming at the mouth), even very rarely lethal

Dried leaves

OTHERS: smoked as tobacco substitute

Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophulariaceae)

Bubujak Brusla

W

Fresh leaves

MEDICINAL: externally as an haemostatic

Bubujak

OTHERS: used for covering butter, peppers with ricotta cheese, or lacto-fermented vegetables

Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae)

Kapriva*

W

Fresh leaves

FOOD/MEDICINAL: consumed boiled (also in the past mixed with sorrel and potato leaves) or in soups, or as filling for savory pies – consumption of nettle is considered healthy as a “blood depurative” MEDICINAL: externally rubbed for treating rheumatisms

Kopriva

Roots

FOOD: used in the past as rennet

MEDICINAL: decoctions are considered able to treat cancer and especially to relieve liver problems (decoction of the leaves and roots together)

Zea mays L. (Poaceae)

Çenk Kolomoç Barsak

C (white and yellow landraces)

Fruits

FODDER

Mçenk Kalamoç FOOD: kukurama - gruel made by rye, corn, wheat and beans

Dried fruits (ground)→Flour

FOOD: buk kolomoçit - bread (traditionally leavened with buttermilk [dhallët]); ingredient of the seasoning mix bagrdar - polenta obtained boiling the flour for at least one hour on the fire, generally served with buttermilk (dhallët), or clarified butter (tlynë) or yogurt (kos) - esp. ewe yogurt (kos delje); alternatively, polenta is served with beans or potato soup; pies (peta), filled with various vegetables

FOOD: buk mçenkut – bread; buk pervlue – sourdough bread; pershenik- leavened bread; pershesh - pershenik dipped in buttermilk [dhalt] or yogurt [kos]) mçenka (like kukurama, but prepared with corn only); bagrdar or kaçamak me tlynë - polenta served with clarified butter

FODDER

RITUAL: corn flour was brought to the Islamic spiritual guide (hoxha), who “wrote” something with this; this was considered essential for treating the evil eye of a member of the family

Various herbaceous species

W

Fresh stem

MEDICINAL: inserted into the anus, as a purgative

Various tree species

W

Wood (burned) →Charcoal

MEDICINAL: used in the past in the ritual healing of the evil-eye: three pieces of hot coals were put in cold water; with the resulting water child face was washed (generally it has to be done by the first-born for his/her brothers/sisters; the first-born has to be treated by a neighbour) and the same water had to be drunk by the child or animal; depending on how the coal was dipped into water, this was also used for the diagnosis of the evil-eye – sometimes the water was given to the child in three spoons, which were then thrown behind the back; depending on how the spoons fell on the ground, the occurrence of the evil-eye was confirmed

Ash

OTHERS: for washing clothes

Not identified

Ferra magjara

W

Leaves

FODDER: for donkeys

Not identified

Kulosgjarpni

W

Fresh flowers

VETERINARY: applied externally against snake bites in horses

Not identified

Morava*

W

Leaves

FOOD: filling for savory pies