Table 1 Basic information of the three villages studied

Establishment

Before late nineteenth century (Moved from nearby old village, one mile away).

Early nineteenth century

1990

Location

N: 20°34′54.3″, E: 96°34′52.7″

N: 20°58′54.3″, E: 96°37′54.9″

N: 19°55′31.9″, E: 96°25′58.1″

Above sea level

1422 m

1736 m

353 m

Habitat

Evergreen forest

Evergreen forest

Deciduous forest

Linear distance to the nearest town

10 km to Kalaw, Shan State

8 km to Pindaya, Shan State

40 km to Tatkone, Mandalay Division

Population/Households

563/140

535/127

410/68

Ethnic Group

Majority: Taung-yoe, Danu Minority: Bamar, Shan

Majority: Danu Minority: Bamar, Pao

Majority: Kayan Minority: Kayin, Bamar

Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism

Christian and Buddhism

Public Facility

One library, one primary school, one buddhist monastery

One primary school, one library, one kindergarten

One middle school, one church, one monastery, one kindergarten

Subsistence

Rice cultivation (ca. 60 acres) Cultivation of vegetables and fruits: ginger, cabbage, cauliflower, egg plants, tomato, chili, chayote, carrot, orange, avocado, pear (ca 150 acres)

Plantation of tea leaves, Ju, pea, cabbage, potato

Cultivation of turmeric, chili, banana, hill rice Collection of bamboo shoots and other forest products

Home garden products

Ginger, orange, avocado, pear

Tea leaves

Mango, banana, jack fruit

Live stock

Buffalo, chicken, cattle, pig

Cattle, chicken

Pig, chicken

Drinking water

Natural springs (connected with pipe line)

Collection of rain water with collection tanks

Natural springs (connected with pipe line)

Electricity

From national grid

No electric supply

Small hydropower generators constructed on the stream