Fig. 3

Composite schematic view illustrating a typical multi-layered, heterogeneous, integrated cropping system in the Terai. a road; b pathway; c rice paddy fields; d lentil and soya bean grown along boundaries; e tube wells or slurry processing for biogas; f vegetable garden (e.g., bottle gourd, cucumber, tomato, beans, okra, sesame), spices (e.g., ginger, turmeric), and cosmetics (e.g., aloe vera) with mulched patches and ridges/bunds for water efficiency; g buffalo, goat, or pig pen and fuel wood storage; h cluster of trees alongside boundary for windbreaks (e.g., Dendro clamus strictus), fuel wood and timber (e.g., Dalbergia sisoo, Shorea robusta, Melia azedarach), fruit (e.g., Psidium guajava), fodder (e.g., Azadirachta indica, Abizia lebbeck), religious value (e.g., Aegle marmelos), or shade (e.g., Magnifera indica); i house roof made of reed thatch, covered with creepers and gourds for esthetic value, insulation, temperature regulation, and food (Adapted from [33])