Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal

Thorn, Jessica P. R.; Thornton, Thomas F.; Helfgott, Ariella; Willis, Kathy J.

doi:10.1186/s13002-020-00382-4

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine

Table 3 Key plant species and their major uses in Central and Western Terai Plains of Nepal

From: Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal

Scientific name, authority name, voucher number	Family	English name	Common name	Type	Part used	Uses	Reference, status
Achyranthes bidentate Blume N110-36	Amaranthaceae	Hill chaff flower	Datiwan (N)	Shrub	Leaves, stem	• Household (toothbrush–stem)	IUCN (2004) [55], Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Achyranthes bidentate Blume N110-36	Amaranthaceae	Hill chaff flower	Datiwan (N)	Shrub	Leaves, stem	• Spiritual (In Teej festival, women use leaves to welcome the monsoon season, bathe in the leaves as an act of purification, in Chitwan harvested for festival “Rishi Tarpani”)	IUCN (2004) [55], Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Acorus calamus L. N106-37	Acoraceae	Sweet flag	Bojho (N)	Herb/Monocot	Root	• Medicine (cough, common cold, increases internal heat, chronic fever, juice of root given orally or chewed to clear the throat)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 47, Accepted name
Aegle marmelos L. Corrêa N304-01	Rutaceae	Bengal Quince	Bael, Bel (N)	Tree	Root, leaves, fruit	• Medicine (Three leaves are used weekly for diabetes, root juice given orally for asthma and cold)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 32, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Aegle marmelos L. Corrêa N304-01	Rutaceae	Bengal Quince	Bael, Bel (N)	Tree	Root, leaves, fruit	• Spiritual (fruit pulp offered to Lord Shiva, women e fast on Mondays and use it the leaf with the Dubo leaf for the wellbeing of husbands, Newari’s marry the fruit)
Albizia lebbeck L. Benth. N304-03	Leguminosae	Black siris	Kalo Siris (N)	Tree	Bark, stem, leaves, seeds	• Timber	Mishra (2013) [58], Accepted name
						• Compost
						• Fodder (sweet seeds)
						• Medicine (reduces inflammation using bark)
						• Fuel (cooking)
Aloe vera L. Burm. f. N103-05	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Aloe vera	Kumari, Ghyekumari (N)	Herb	Leaves, root	• Medicine (Cooling burns on skin, jaundice)	Govt of Nepal (2014) [59], Accepted name
Aloe vera L. Burm. f. N103-05	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Aloe vera	Kumari, Ghyekumari (N)	Herb	Leaves, root	• Cosmetic (face cream)	Govt of Nepal (2014) [59], Accepted name
Artemisia vulgaris var. indica (Willd.) Hassk. N209-06	Compositae	Mugwort	Tite pati (N), Pati (Th)	Herb	Leaves, flowers, roots	• Spiritual (flower used for worship offering)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 187, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Medicine (stomach pains, digestion—tender root, antibiotic for cuts)
						• Fodder (leaves)
						• Compost manure
						• Pesticide
						• Rice diseases
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. N101-07	Moraceae	Jackfruit	Rukh Katahar (N), Badahar (Th)	Tree	Fruit, stem, leaves	• Food (fruit, seed is eaten, roasted or cooked as a vegetable)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 40, Accepted name
						• Pesticide
						• Household (wood is used for a pot used to make yoghurt, called “taki”)
Asparagus racemosus Willd. N102-08	Asparagaceae	Asparagus	Kurilo (N), Satavari, Santawar (Th)	Herb	Root	• Medicine (nutrition of humans/animals, paralysis, root powder given orally to increase lactation and tonic after delivery)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Dangol (2005), Accepted name
Asparagus racemosus Willd. N102-08	Asparagaceae	Asparagus	Kurilo (N), Satavari, Santawar (Th)	Herb	Root	• Food (alcohol)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Dangol (2005), Accepted name
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. N106-10	Meliaceae	Margosa tree	Neem (N), Topre voltabre (Th)	Tree	Leaves, bark	• Medicine (cough, gastritis, arthritis, wounds—and tender twigs paste, high blood pressure and high uric acid—fresh leaves given orally, scabies—fresh leaves used to wash ski, fever—bath in water boiled with neem leaves, pneumonia—boil 2-3 leaves and drink water)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 129, Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 44, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Pesticide
						• Household (young stem used to brush teeth)
Bombax ceiba L. N204-12	Malvaceae	Silk cotton tree	Simal (N), Semar (Th)	Tree	Flowers, root	• Household (mattresses, cotton)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 168, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Timber
						• Medicine (root decoction is given as tonic, anti-dysenteric, urinary infections)
Borassus flabellifer L. N303-13	Arecaceae	Coconut	Nariwal (N)	Tree	Bark, fruit	• Food (fruit)	WCFP (2015), Accepted name
						• Spiritual (Coconut with milk inside is a holy offering)
						• Timber
Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch N204-20	Apiaceae	Black cumin	Himali, Kalo jeera (N)	Herb	Seeds	• Medicine (cold—infused)	USDA (2015), Accepted name
Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch N204-20	Apiaceae	Black cumin	Himali, Kalo jeera (N)	Herb	Seeds	• Fuel (cooking)	USDA (2015), Accepted name
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. N108-15	Leguminosae	Flame of the forest	Palans, Dhak, Paras (N)	Tree	Entire tree	• Medicine (diuretic)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 140, Accepted name
						• Pesticide to kill mosquitos
						• Spiritual (Tree represents the God of Fire and flowers are used to worship Shivatri in Hinduism tree was used to achieve enlightenment in Theravada Buddhism)
						• Household (leaves pieced together to make a leaf-plate (patravali))
Calotropis gigantean (L.) Dryand N108-11	Apocynaceae	Crown flower	Aak, Aankh (N), Madar (Th)	Shrub	Latex	• Medicine (Massage milk into sprained areas (muscles/joints)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Disservice (if the milk goes into the eye it can damage)
						• Spiritual (referred to as the Tuesday bush)
Cannabis sativa L. N201-16	Cannabaceae	Cannibis	Bhang (N)	Shrub	Entire plant	• Food	Mishra (2003) [58], Accepted name
						• Medicine (headache, dysentery, asthma)
						• Veterinary (diarrhea, abscess of goats)
Carica papaya L. N204-17	Caricaceae	Papaya	Mewa (N), Papita, Larmewa (Th)	Tree	Latex, fruit	• Household (Milk latex used to make soap)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Medicine (muscle pain, tiredness—fruit infused)
						• Fuel (cooking)
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. N109-22	Apiaceae	Indian pennywort	Ghod tapre (N), Ghortapya, Boltapre, Bhatbhat (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Medicine (fever, chest and urinary tract infections, typhoid blood purifier, pneumonia—infused)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 76, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. N202-23	Lauraceae	Indian cassia	Tejpaat (N), Dalchini (Th)	Tree	Leaves	• Spiritual (ritual importance during festivals)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 184, Accepted name
						• Medicine (sore throat—infused)
						• Food (Leaves eaten, imparting a strong cassia- or cinnamon like aroma to dishes)
Citrus hystrix DC. N303-24	Rutaceae	Makrut lime	Nibuwa (N)	Tree	Stem	• Timber	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Accepted name
Colocasia affinis Schott N201-25	Araceae	Taro or Elephant ear	Pindalu, Karkalo (N), Ghuiya (Th)	Herb	Stem, leaves, root, latex	• Food (leaves, root, stem or corn eaten as a vegetable)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Colocasia affinis Schott N201-25	Araceae	Taro or Elephant ear	Pindalu, Karkalo (N), Ghuiya (Th)	Herb	Stem, leaves, root, latex	• Medicine (latex sooths itching)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Crateva unilocularis (Buch.-Ham.) N101-28	Capparaceae	Garlic pear	Siplikan (N)	Tree	Fruit	• Medicine (rheumatism, kidney, bladder stones, tonic)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 171, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Crateva unilocularis (Buch.-Ham.) N101-28	Capparaceae	Garlic pear	Siplikan (N)	Tree	Fruit	• Food (vegetable high in iron)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 171, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. N101-29	Zingiberaceae	Black turmeric	Haledo (N)	Herb	Leaves, root	• Medicine (stomach ailments, natural antibiotic for colds—infused)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 82, Accepted name
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. N402-30	Convolvulaceae	Mistletoe	Aakashbeli (N) Baora (Th)	Climber	Entire plant	• Medicine (fever -juice of plant given orally, rheumatism and jaundice—plant paste applied externally)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees es Steud.) W. Watson N206-31	Poaceae	Lemongrass	Ushir (N)	Grass	Leaves	• Medicine (aromatic stimulant, oil, colds- infused)	Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. N109-32	Poaceae	Bermuda or Dog tooth’s grass	Dubo (N), Dub (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Spiritual (green grass used to decorate garlands)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. N109-32	Poaceae	Bermuda or Dog tooth’s grass	Dubo (N), Dub (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Fodder	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Dalbergia sissoo DC. N404-39	Leguminosae	Indian rosewood	Sisau (N) Sisava (Th)	Tree	Bark, stem	• Fodder	IUCN (2004) [55]: 173, Accepted name
						• Timber (house, furniture)
						• Fuel (cooking)
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees N207-19	Poaceae	Feathery bamboo	Baas (N)	Grass	Entire plant	• Timber (Fences for farms and livestock, windbreaks, houses)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 308, Accepted name
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees N207-19	Poaceae	Feathery bamboo	Baas (N)	Grass	Entire plant	• Fuel (cooking)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 308, Accepted name
Duranta erecta L. N108-40	Verbenaceae	Golden dewdrop or Forgetmenot	Nil kanda (N)	Shrub	Flowers	• Ornamental (grown for decoration along roadsides)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 310, Accepted name
Eucalyptus robusta Sm. N202-41	Myrtacaeae	Gum tree	Masala (N)	Tree	Stem	• Timber (furniture)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 117, Accepted name
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. N210-26	Compositae	Croftonweed or sticky snakeroot	Banmara (N) Banmasa, Banmari (Th)	Shrub	Flowers	• Invasive weed, plant around the house and it prevents snakes from coming in, flower is used for worship, invasive species seeds used for making antibiotic, fodder, pesticide, compost	USDA (2015), Accepted name
Euphorbia hirta (L. N406-42	Euphorbiaceae	Asthma plant	Dudhe jaar (N), Doodhe jaare (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Fodder	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Cosmetic (seed used to wash hair)
						• Medicine (plant juice applied to wounds)
Euphorbia royleana Boiss. N101-43	Euphorbiaceae	Cactus, Royles’ or Sullu spurge	Siundi (N)	Tree	Entire plant	• Timber (fences, have thorns to protect from wild animal raids)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 175, Accepted name
Euphorbia royleana Boiss. N101-43	Euphorbiaceae	Cactus, Royles’ or Sullu spurge	Siundi (N)	Tree	Entire plant	• Medicine (ground material is used for coughs)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 175, Accepted name
Ficus benghalensis L. N201-44	Moraceae	Banaya fig, or Indian Banyan	Bar (N), Bargad (Th)	Tree	Bark, latex	• Medicine (milky latex applied on muscular pain, infused barks given orally for diabetes)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 28, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Ficus racemosa L. N301-45	Moraceae	Cluster fig, or Indian fig tree	Badar, Gular (N), Dumri (Th)	Tree	Fruit, stem	• Food (fruit)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 129, Mishra (2013), Accepted name
Ficus racemosa L. N301-45	Moraceae	Cluster fig, or Indian fig tree	Badar, Gular (N), Dumri (Th)	Tree	Fruit, stem	• Timber
Ficus religiosa L. N107-46	Moraceae	Bhodi or Peepal tree	Pipal (N)	Tree	Entire plant	• Medicine (cuts, cough—bark)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 145, Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 129, Accepted name
Ficus religiosa L. N107-46	Moraceae	Bhodi or Peepal tree	Pipal (N)	Tree	Entire plant	• Spiritual (sacred tree in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism)
Ficus auriculata Lour. N301-21	Moraceae	Roxburgh fig	Ninmaro (N)	Tree	Leaves, fruit	• Fodder	IUCN (2004) [55], Accepted name
Ficus auriculata Lour. N301-21	Moraceae	Roxburgh fig	Ninmaro (N)	Tree	Leaves, fruit	• Food (fruit)	IUCN (2004) [55], Accepted name
Garuga pinnata Roxb. N104-14	Bursaraceae	Garuga	Ramsing, Dabdabi (N), Dabdaai (Th)	Tree	Leaves	• Fodder	Mishra (2003) [58], Accepted name
Garuga pinnata Roxb. N104-14	Bursaraceae	Garuga	Ramsing, Dabdabi (N), Dabdaai (Th)	Tree	Leaves	• Veterinary (medicine)	Mishra (2003) [58], Accepted name
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. N101-47	Malvaceae	Chinese hibiscus	Rakta puspi, Japa puspi (N)	Shrub	Flowers, seeds, roots	• Spiritual (flowers placed in entrance to homes as offerings)	Ross (2003), Accepted name
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. N101-47	Malvaceae	Chinese hibiscus	Rakta puspi, Japa puspi (N)	Shrub	Flowers, seeds, roots	• Food (infusion)	Ross (2003), Accepted name
Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don N101-48	Bignoniaceae	Jacaranda	Jacaranda (N)	Tree	Flowers	• Ornamental • Spiritual (flowers placed in entrance to homes as offerings)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 156, Accepted name
Jatropha curcas L. N208-49	Euphorbiaceae	Physic nut	Sajiwan, Sajiba (N) (Th)	Tree	Seeds, stems	• Timber (fences, livestock pens)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 314, Accepted name
						• Household (biodiesel produced on a small-scale, seeds used for burning candles, brushing the teeth—shoot)
						• Medicine (prevents gingivitis)
Justicia adhatoda L. N408-50	Acanthaceae	Malabar nut	Asuro (N) Osuro, Ross (Th)	Shrub	Entire plant	• Medicine (headaches, dizziness, coughs, malaria treatment- dried powder of entire plant, swelling—grind leaves and drink)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 21, Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 161, Accepted name
						• Pesticide
						• Compost for seedlings in rice fields
						• Timber (windbreaks, fences, houses)
						• Fodder
						• Food (vegetable)
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. N206-51	Anacardiaceae	Indian ash tree	Jinghat (N)	Tree	Leaves	• Fodder	Mishra (2003) [58], Flowers of India (2015), Accepted name
Lantana camara L. N401-52	Verbenaceae	Lantana	Ban fanda, Masino kanda (N)	Herb	Flowers	• Spiritual (ornamental flower)	Ghosh (2012) Ethnobotanical Soc of Nepal (2015), Accepted name
Lantana camara L. N401-52	Verbenaceae	Lantana	Ban fanda, Masino kanda (N)	Herb	Flowers	• Disservice (invasive species, toxic to livestock)
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit N103-33	Leguminosae	Leucaena	Ipil-ipil (N) (Th)	Tree	Stem, leaves	• Fodder (for goats)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 4, Accepted name
						• Fuel (cooking)
						• Soil (erosion prevention along riverbanks)
Litchi chinensis Sonn. N406-53	Sapindaceae	Litchee	Litchi (N) (Th)	Tree	Fruit	• Food (fruit)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Accepted name
Litchi chinensis Sonn. N406-53	Sapindaceae	Litchee	Litchi (N) (Th)	Tree	Fruit	• Medicine (tonic, bites of animals)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Accepted name
Mangifera indica L. N104-54	Anacardiaceae	Mango	Amp (N)	Tree	Fruit, bark	• Food (fruit)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 179, Accepted name
						• Shade
						• Medicine (stomach pains, fever—bath in cool water)
						• Fuel (heating)
						• Timber (house, furniture)
Melanochyla caesia (Blume) Ding Hou (syn. Semecarpus anacardium Blume) N408-68	Anacardiaceae	Marking nut tree	Bhalayo (N)	Tree	Fruit	• Medicine (fruit and nuts used for skin allergies, ash used for scorpion or snake bites)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 261, Unresolved name
Melia azedarach L. N110-55	Meliaceae	Persian lilac	Bakaino/a (N), Bakain (Th)	Tree	Leaves, Flowers and fruit	• Fodder	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 179, Accepted name
						• Pesticides (leaves stored in airtight container and left to decay, and sprayed on leaves)
						• Fuel (cooking)
						• Medicine (blood purifier–root, nausea, worms, leaf paste applied for scabies)
Mentha arvensis L. N304-27	Labiatae	Peppermint	Pudina (N), Baabari (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Medicine (nausea, painkiller for headaches, neck pain, joint/back pain—applied externally with four parts oil and one part of crushed mint)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Mentha arvensis L. N304-27	Labiatae	Peppermint	Pudina (N), Baabari (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Food (pickle)	Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Michelia champaca (L.) Baill. Ex Pierre N302-35	Magnoliaceae	Champak	Champaa (N), Chuwa (Th)	Tree	Flowers, leaves	• Medicine (blood pressure, diabetes)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 184, Accepted name
Michelia champaca (L.) Baill. Ex Pierre N302-35	Magnoliaceae	Champak	Champaa (N), Chuwa (Th)	Tree	Flowers, leaves	• Spiritual (offering in temples and homes)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 184, Accepted name
Mimosa pudica L. N301-56	Leguminosae	Touch-me-not or Humble plant	Lajjawati (N)	Shrub	Leaves	• Medicine (constipation, extended stomach—roots ground and is mixed with Tulsi, Rudilo, Beloti leaves, Titepati and the root of Datiwan—eaten on Tuesdays and Thursdays)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 118, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Mimosa pudica L. N301-56	Leguminosae	Touch-me-not or Humble plant	Lajjawati (N)	Shrub	Leaves	• Fodder	IUCN (2004) [55]: 118, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Musa paradisiaca L. N203-57	Musaceae	Banana	Kera (N) (Th)	Shrub	Entire plant	• Food (fruit)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Soil (soil potassium input)
						• Household (leaf used to place meat which is cut on top)
						•Medicine (dysentery – fruit roasted)
Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser N401-58	Rubiaceae	Kadamba tree	Kadam, Kadamba (N)	Tree	Stem, leaves	•Timber (low-grade wood used for light construction)	WCFP (2015), Accepted name
						• Fuel (cooking, heating)
						• Medicine (mouth gargle—extract of leaves)
						• Fodder (cattle)
						• Spiritual (in Hinduism the sacred couple of Shiva and Parvati came to Sahyadr, and gave birth to a child under the Kadam tree)
Nyctanthes arbor-trisis L. N304-59	Oleaceae	Coral jasmine	Parijat, Paarijaat (N), Raatki rani, Hasna (Th)	Shrub	Flowers, seeds, leaves	• Spiritual (flower used in several Hindu religious stories and is often related to the Kalpavriksha)	Govt of Nepal (2012), Accepted name
Nyctanthes arbor-trisis L. N304-59	Oleaceae	Coral jasmine	Parijat, Paarijaat (N), Raatki rani, Hasna (Th)	Shrub	Flowers, seeds, leaves	• Medicine (cough, asthma, diuretic)	Govt of Nepal (2012), Accepted name
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. N103-60	Lamiaceae	Holy or Sacred basil	Krishna tulsi (N), Kalo tulasi (Th)	Herb	Entire plant	• Medicine (cough, fever, immune booster—infused daily with turmeric)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 189, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Spiritual (grown in homes for daily offering)
						•Soil (ground cover to retain moisture)
Oxalis corniculata L. N201-76	Oxalidaceae	Creeping sorrel	Carii Amilo, Caremalaa (N)	Creeper	Flowers, leaves	• Food (leaves edible, with tangy taste of lemon)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 49, Accepted name
Oxalis corniculata L. N201-76	Oxalidaceae	Creeping sorrel	Carii Amilo, Caremalaa (N)	Creeper	Flowers, leaves	• Disservice (invasive weed in fallow land)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 49, Accepted name
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken N210-18	Crassulaceae	Life plant, Air plant, Miracle leaf	Ajambari/a (N)	Herb	Root, leaves, stem	• Compost manure (leaves)	Mandal et al. (2013) [61], Accepted name
						• Timber (fences, canals)
						• Disservice (if the leaves are eaten by the livestock they die)
						• Fuel (cooking)
Paris polyphylla Sm. N301-61	Melanthiaceae	Herb paris	Langokloti, Satuwa (Th)	Herb	Leaves, fruit	• Medicine (fever, headache—mix with tobacco)	Madhu et al. (2010), Accepted name
						• Veterinary (medicine for livestock)
						• Spiritual (Gurungs (a caste) harvest the fruit on Tuesdays of mid-April)
Phyllanthus emblica L. N102-62	Phyllanthaceae	Indian gooseberry	Amala (N), Aura (Th)	Tree	Leaves, bark, fruit	• Food (fruit)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 16, Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 209, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
						• Medicine (gastric problems including dysentery, constipation, stomach tumors and back pain—bark juice given orally, sore throat and colds—decoction)
						• Household (used in soaps and cosmetics)
Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm. f.) Kuntze N304-34	Lamiaceae	Bengal pogostemon	Rudhilo (N)	Herb	Flowers, roots, leaves, shoots	• Medicine (temperature balance, sinus, cold, sedative, stimulant, styptic))	Dongol (2005), Accepted name
						• Compost manure
						• Spiritual (flowers used for garlands)
						• Household (patchouli / dilem essential oil)
Psidium guajava L. N208-04	Myrtaceae	Guava	Aamba, Belauti (N) Belaun (Th)	Tree	Fruit, stem	• Food (fruit)	Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Accepted name
						• Fuel (cooking, heating)
						• Medicine (throat, diarrhea, vomiting)
Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. N105-63	Leguminosae	Indian kudzu	Kudzu (N) Biralikand (Th)	Climber	Root, fruit	• Medicine (relieves constipation, eases bowel movement, boosts immunity)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 46, Accepted name
Rauvolfia serpentina L. Benth. Ex. Kurz N107-64	Apocynaceae	Indian snakeroot	Sarpagangha (N)	Shrub	Flowers, roots	• Medicine (stomach pain, bowel disorder, dysentery, hypotension, sedative)	Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Rauvolfia serpentina L. Benth. Ex. Kurz N107-64	Apocynaceae	Indian snakeroot	Sarpagangha (N)	Shrub	Flowers, roots	• Spiritual (used in meditation)	Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Ricinus communis L. N101-65	Euphorbiaceae	Castor oil	Ander (N) Yamyam (Th)	Shrub	Root, leaves, seeds	• Medicine (sprains – seed oil or leaves heated and massaged, rheumatic pain—given orally)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 336, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Salix x fragilis L. N207-66	Salicaceae	Willow	Bainsh (N)	Tree	Entire plant	• Ornamental	Aziz (2007), Accepted name
						• Timber
						• Shade
						• Fodder
						• Medicine (fever)
Sapindus mukorossi Gärtn. N301-67	Sapindaceae	Soap nut	Rittha (N)	Tree	Fruit, leaves	• Household (nut used for soap, leaves used for baskets)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 155, Accepted name
						• Food
						• Medicine (epilepsy, salivation)
Shorea robusta Gärtn. N403-74	Dipterocarpaceae	Sal tree	Sal (N) Sakhuwa (Th)	Tree	Root, bark, resin, seed	• Timber (hardwood for furniture, buildings)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 264, IUCN (2004) [55]: 158, Kerkhoff (2003) [60], Accepted name
						• Fuel (cooking)
						• Medicine (Diarrhea, bloody dysentery—administered orally)
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels N201-75	Myraceae	Black plum or Indian blackberry	Phader (N) Jamun, Jamuna (Th)	Tree	Fruit, bark, seed, leaf	• Medicine (Diarrhea, indigestion, headaches, constipation—fruit given orally, bronchitis—bark, leaf and seed, powder is given orally to reduce sugar levels in blood for diabetes and to improve the heart)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 90, Ghosh (2012), Accepted name
						• Fodder
						• Food (fruit eaten or fermented for alcohol)
Terminalia bellirica (Gärt.) Roxb. N102-69	Combretaceae	Barro or Bekkeric myrobalan	Barro (N) Baheda (Th)	Tree	Seeds	• Household (soap, hair oil)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 29, Accepted name
Terminalia bellirica (Gärt.) Roxb. N102-69	Combretaceae	Barro or Bekkeric myrobalan	Barro (N) Baheda (Th)	Tree	Seeds	• Medicine (gastric, dry cough, cold—roast the seed and chew)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 29, Accepted name
Terminalia chebula Retz. N405-70	Combretaceae	Yellow or Chebulic myrobalan	Rohini (N)	Tree	Fruit	• Food (fruit, young leaves pickled or made into preserves when boiled and added with sugar)	Bhattarai et al. (2006) [14], Accepted name
						• Fuel
						• Fodder
						• Medicine (compounds of chebulic acid inhibit the growth of malignant tumors, cures blindness)
Themeda triandra Forssk. N201-09	Poaceae	Kangaroo or Rui grass	Khari (N), Kiyar (Th)	Tree	Stem, leaves	• Timber (furniture)	Storrs and Storrs (1998) [54]: 78, Accepted name
						• Medicine (pain in the body)
						• Household (clothing dye)
						• Fodder
						• Fuel (cooking)
Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda N304-02	Poaceae	Broom or Bouquet grass	Amriso (N)	Herb	Leaf, stem	• Household (used to make brooms)	Shankar et al. (2001), Accepted name
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. N204-71	Menispermaceae	Guduchi	Gurjoo (N)	Shrub	Leaves	• Medicine (fever, maintains thermal balance)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 80, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. N204-71	Menispermaceae	Guduchi	Gurjoo (N)	Shrub	Leaves	• Fodder	IUCN (2004) [55]: 80, Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Vitex negundo L. N107-72	Lamiaceae	Chaste tree	Simali (N)	Shrub	Leaves	• Medicine (stomach pain, juice given orally)	IUCN (2004) [55]: 169, Singh et al. (2012) [56], Accepted name
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. N205-38	Rutaceae	Winged prickly ash	Timur (N)	Tree	Fruit	• Medicine (toothache, common cold, cough, fever—particularly for children)	Govt of Nepal (2014), Accepted name
Zingiber officinale Roscoe N207-73	Zingiberaceae	Ginger	Ardhrakam (N)	Herb	Root	• Medicine (sore throat, cough)	USDA (2013), Accepted name

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