Table 2 List of WEFs and their collection seasons, availability, and uses in eastern Bhutan

Actinidiaceae

Actinidia callosa Lindl.^a

Zhimpeykotong/Phangkulomsey

KN015

5

0

Oct–Nov

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. Stems used for making ropes and seeds for raising rootstock

Anacardiaceae

Rhus chinensis Mill^a

Roptang sey

KN013

10

0

Jul–Aug

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. Stems and trunks are used as firewood and fencing poles. To treat snakebite and stomachache

[48]

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera sylvatica Roxb.^b

Amsey

KN014

4

5

Jul–Aug

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw and as pickles

[49]

Anacardiaceae

Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill^b

Phrumchung sey

KN012

14

0

Jul–Aug

Ra

Fruits consumed raw and as pickle

[49]

Araceae

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott^b

Bozong

KN016

1

1

Jan–Feb

Ra

Corms are boiled and consumed as snacks, curry, and soup. Leaves used to wrap dairy products and as a plate

[21, 23, 48, 49]

Bignoniaceae

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz^b

Namkaling

KN020

2

0

Aug–Sep

Ra

Flowers are consumed as a vegetable and used for religious purposes. To treat burns and wounds, relieve cough and gastritis

[48, 49]

Combretaceae

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.^a

Baru

KN025

1

5

Nov–Feb

Ra

Dried fruits are chewed for medicinal purposes. Fruits used for traditional medicine and religious purpose, used for cough and sore throat, diarrhea, ingestion, asthma, constipation, dye extraction

[21, 23, 49]

Combretaceae

Terminalia chebula Retz.^a

Aru

KN021

1

5

May–June

Ra

Dried fruits are chewed for medicinal purposes. Used for traditional medicine and religious purpose. To treat cough, asthma, diarrhea, and constipation

[23]

Cornaceae

Cornus capitata Wall^c

Maminpa sey/poitse sey

PY001

42

20

Sep–Oct

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt^c

Khakhari sey

2

0

June–July

Mo

Fruits are consumed as a vegetable

[21, 48]

Dioscoraceae

Dioscorea bulbifera L.^a

Borang joktang

KN022

19

3

Oct–Nov

Ra

Aerial and underground tubers are consumed by boiling or roasting. Stems are used as rope for fencing

[21]

Ebenaceae

Diospyros lotus L.^b

Amdrebu sey/ gundum

KN024

6

9

Sep–Oct

Mo

Fruits are dried and consumed. Seeds are used to raise rootstock

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus latifolia L.^a

Dangmaling sey

PY002

44

27

Jul–Aug

Ab

Fruits are consumed raw or processed into wine

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus lanceifolius Roxb^a

Gashathung sey

KN023

24

10

Jul–Sep

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw as a pickle. The wood is used as a construction material, to make tea boxes and charcoal

Ericaceae

Vaccinium retusum (Griff.) Hook.f. ex C.B.Clarke^a

Shakshingma sey

PY008

35

17

Oct–Nov

Mo

Fruits consumed raw on ripe. Used for religious purposes and to treat a skin problem

Fabaceae

Tamarindus indica L.^a

Tetari

KN026

5

0

Mar–April

Ra

Pods are consumed raw or as pickles used to relieve constipation, as an appetizer, and spice/condiment

[48]

Fabaceae

Castanopsis indica (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC.^c

Tsha tsha sey

KN030

18

9

Oct–Nov

Mo

Nuts are consumed raw, after boiling and roasting. The wood is used as firewood and furniture making

Juglandaceae

Juglans regia L.^c

Khesey

KN027

53

30

Sep–Oct

Ab

Nuts are consumed raw, wood for Furniture, nut cover as a yeast, flowers as tea leaves, and seeds as butter in butter tea

[23]

Lardizabalaceae

Holboellia latifolia Wall.^a

Throkchang sey

KN029

27

9

Nov–Dec

Mo

Fruits consumed raw on ripe. Stems used as a rope for plowing and fencing

Lauraceae

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.^c

Neng

KN028

22

7

Jul–Aug

Ra

Fruits are consumed as salad, dried, and processed into powder. Used as a spice in the food

Lauraceae

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob.^a

Kherim sey

PY009

1

4

Sep–Aug

Ra

Consumed as a spice. Used for oil extraction. Used as a cooking oil

Lauraceae

Machilus edulis King ex Hook. f.^b

Goli

PY011

21

13

Sep–Aug

Ra

Fruits are consumed as a substitute for curry with rice. Wood is used for firewood, seeds used to raise rootstock

Lauraceae

Parasassafras confertiflora (Meisn.) D.G.Long^c

Singsi

KN031

16

2

Aug–Sep

Ra

Fruits are used for oil extraction, used as cooking oil, wound treatment, skin lotion

Moraceae

Ficus auriculata Lour.^c

Chongma sey

KN035

32

18

Jul–Aug

Ab

Fruits are consumed raw or as dried fruit. Leaves and stems as fodder, leaves are used to wrap dairy products. The latex used to treat wounds and cuts, roasted fruits for treating diarrhea and dysentery

[21, 23, 49]

Moraceae

Ficus semicordata Buch.Ham. ex Sm.^c

Barchongma sey

KN033

17

21

Jul–Aug

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. leaves and stems as fodder, fruit paste for fever and menstrual disorder

[21, 49]

Moraceae

Morus serrata Roxb.^b

Shagongma sey

PY003

6

2

Jul–Aug

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw. leaves used as a fodder

Musaceae

Musa acuminata Colla^b

Laisey

KN032

7

8

June–July

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw and processed into chips. leaves to wrap dairy products, as fodder for cattle

Myricaceae

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don^a

Tsutsu sey

PY004

50

8

Jul–Aug

Mo

Berries are consumed raw on ripe. Used for cough and cold, leaves as fodder

[21, 49]

Myrsinaceae

Ardisia macrocarpa Wall^a

Thakchung sey

PY005

8

1

Dec–Jan

Ab

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe

[21]

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava L^b

Bebsey

KN034

7

5

Nov–Dec

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. leaves paste for hair growth and dandruff. Leaves are used as a green tea

[49]

Myrtaceae

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels^a

Mintse

PY006

5

0

Jun–July

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. Used as firewood and fodder, to treat diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery

[21, 23, 49]

Nephrolepidaceae

Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl^a

Ata khaw khaw

KN036

1

0

July–Aug

Ra

Underground nodules are consumed as a refreshment. Used to treat hypertension and diabetes

[21]

Passifloraceae

Passiflora edulis Sims^b

Zargong

KN040

5

0

Aug–Sep

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe

[48]

Pinaceae

Pinus roxburghii Sarg.^a

Tongphu shing

KN037

1

1

Nov–Dec

Mo

Seeds are consumed raw or after roasting. Wood as a construction material

Punicaceae

Punica granatum L.^b

Tshalem/Thalem

KN038

4

11

April–May

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe

[23]

Phyllanthaceae

Phyllanthus emblica L.^a

Chorgen sey

KN039

11

25

Dec–Feb

Ab

Fruits are consumed raw or processed into a pickle, dried fruit, and wine. Used to treat hypertension, cough, and cold. Used for traditional medicine and religious purpose

[21, 23, 48, 49]

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.^a

Khangaring

KN041

9

19

Feb–Mar

Ab

Fruits are consumed raw and processed into pickles and wine. for traditional medicine. Used for cuts and ulcers, ingestion, and fever

[21]

Rosaceae

Chaenomeles lagenaria (Loisel.) Koidz.^b

Khomang

KN042

19

0

Sep–Oct

Mo

Consumed raw or processed into a pickle. Used as a dye. Used for treating cough and cold, to remove the rust

Rosaceae

Docynia indica (Colebr. ex Wall.) Decne.^C

Thungkakpa

PY010

49

37

Nov–Dec

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw, after boiling or roasting, and as dried fruit. Used as an appetizer and to cure diabetes

[49]

Rosaceae

Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita^a

Sagong

KN043

34

21

June–July

Ab

Berries are consumed raw and processed into juice

Rosaceae

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don^c

Letong

KN044

18

15

Oct–Nov

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw, like dried fruit, and processed into wine. Seeds used as a rootstock material

[23]

Rosaceae

Rubus ellipticus Sm.^c

Sergong

PY007

49

40

May–June

Ab

Berries are consumed raw and processed into juice

[21, 23]

Rutaceae

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.^a

Gee

KN045

33

22

Aug–Sep

Mo

Berries are used as a spice. Used to ward off evil spirits

[23]

Rutaceae

Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle^b

Kapur

KN050

4

16

Nov–Dec

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw as a salad, processed into a pickle. Used to remove dandruff

[23]

Rutaceae

Citrus medica L.^b

Lumpang

KN048

7

13

Nov–Dec

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw and processed into juice and pickle. Used to relieve pain and inflammation, treat skin disorder and itching

[23]

Rutaceae

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.^a

Berkang sey/Lebi sey

KN046

3

6

July–Aug

Mo

Fruits are consumed raw. Used as a condiment in curry

[21, 23, 49]

Rubiaceae

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.^a

Ngyerthung sey

KN047

5

2

Nov–Dec

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe

Sapotaceae

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J.Lam^a

Fin sey/Phinlung

KN049

15

7

June–July

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. Used for oil extraction. Used as cooking oil, butter lamp, to treat a pimple, boils, burns, headache and rheumatism

[21]

Schisandraceae

Illicium verum Hook.f.^c

Wunba tsinang

KN053

2

0

Sep–Oct

Ra

Seeds are consumed with betel leaf. Used as a spice in tea and curries

Solanaceae

Physalis peruviana L.^c

Pokpokma sey

KN050

2

0

June–July

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw or cooked as a vegetable. To treat diabetes and hypertension

Symplocaceae

Symplocos paniculata Miq.^a

Thulu sey/ Pangtse shing

KN052

1

0

Aug–Sep

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. Used for oil extraction which is used as cooking oil. Leaves used as a dye

Thymelaeaceae

Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don^a

Desho shing

KN051

0

7

May

Ra

Fruits are consumed raw on ripe. The bark is used for making paper and rope