The supernatural characters and powers of sacred trees in the Holy Land

This article surveys the beliefs concerning the supernatural characteristics and powers of sacred trees in Israel; it is based on a field study as well as a survey of the literature and includes 118 interviews with Muslims and Druze. Both the Muslims and Druze in this study attribute supernatural dimensions to sacred trees which are directly related to ancient, deep-rooted pagan traditions. The Muslims attribute similar divine powers to sacred trees as they do to the graves of their saints; the graves and the trees are both considered to be the abode of the soul of a saint which is the source of their miraculous powers. Any violation of a sacred tree would be strictly punished while leaving the opportunity for atonement and forgiveness. The Druze, who believe in the transmigration of souls, have similar traditions concerning sacred trees but with a different religious background. In polytheistic religions the sacred grove/forest is a centre of the community's official worship; any violation of the trees is regarded as a threat to the well being of the community. Punishments may thus be collective. In the monotheistic world (including Christianity, Islam and Druze) the pagan worship of trees was converted into the worship/adoration of saints/prophets; it is not a part of the official religion but rather a personal act and the punishments are exerted only on the violating individual.

In polytheistic religions the sacred grove/forest is a centre of the community's official worship; any violation of the trees is regarded as a threat to the well being of the community. Punishments may thus be collective.
In the monotheistic world (including Christianity, Islam and Druze) the pagan worship of trees was converted into the worship/adoration of saints/prophets; it is not a part of the official religion but rather a personal act and the punishments are exerted only on the violating individual.   Table 3 See Table 3 Table 3), which may carry an immediate sentence of death (Table 4).

Background
In previous papers we studied the reasons and the religious background why trees became sacred with a special reference to the Middle East [42]. In other papers we stud-ied the custom of tying rags on sacred trees in Israel [41] and the special respect given to Ziziphus spina-christi [69]in our region. The present paper is a continuation of our studies in which we surveys the present-day attitudes of Muslims and Druze in Israel in relation to the supernatural characters and powers of the sacred tree.

Methodology
The field study (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)  The distinction between "Arabs" and "Bedouin" was made in an attempt to examine if there were any different traditions regarding sacred trees which may reflect the different origin of nomads versus settled village people.
The survey excluded Christians, who hardly believed in sacred trees while, in the Jewish sector, the adoration/worshipping of trees is a new trend of the last two decades and almost all the worshippd trees are already known as old Muslim sacred ones in the vicinity of graves of supposed historical righteous Jewish personalities. In each village we carried out a preliminary survey to locate the more knowledgeable people in advance, and we also chose important religious leaders to examine their attitudes to the veneration of sacred trees.
The informants were mainly chosen according to their knowledge of common/local traditions and/or religious status. The average age of the informants was 57.7 (+/-14.8) years. Respondents were 116 males and two females (in general women are reluctant to be interviewed, and when they agreed the interview was held in the presence of other family members). Because of the refusal of most of the informants to be videotaped or recorded the study is based entirely on oral interviews and field notes taken on the spot. The interviewees were asked several specific questions; for example, 1. What is the reason for the specific punishment inflicted on anyone who has hurt/dam-  aged/cut down/used the sacred tree? 2. Who is liable to be punished for injuring a sacred tree, and how may the punishment be averted or revoked? 3. Why are sacred trees not burned? 4. Who is the punishing agent in response to not respecting the sacred tree? We also collected stories of miracles related to sacred trees.

Results
The results concerning the supernatural characters of sacred trees appear in Table 1; supernatural powers of sacred trees are in Table 2; punishable deeds in connection with sacred trees are shown in Table 3 and the punishments for those who violated sacred trees are presented in Table 4).
The questions that were asked, and the various answers given, are listed here.
A. What is the reason for the specific punishment inflicted on anyone who harmed/cut down/used the sacred tree? (Figures in bold type indicate the number of the informants who gave a particular answer).
1. The house fell down because the person took wood for constructing a house. (5).
2. The house/food/property (of the wrong-doer) was burned because wood was taken for heating or burning.
3. A leg was cut off, just as the tree was cut down. (4) 4. The same axe that cut down the tree cut the leg off/ killed the offender. (5, all of whom are Druze).
B. Who is liable for punishment for harming a sacred tree, and how may the punishment be averted or revoked?
1. The person has to sacrifice a goat and to give its meat to the needy (12).
2. The material (such as leaves, branches) that was taken from the tree has to be returned (7).
3. Pilgrimage to a sacred place, sacrifice and/or the paying of a ransom (5).
4. The person to be punished can go to the Sheikh who reads a chapter from the Koran and the offender has to ask for forgiveness; the punishment will disappear instantly (6).
5. The offender expresses remorse and swears not to repeat his deeds (4). 6. Only believers are punished by the tree (5).
7. If you coming to the sacred tree with a good intent, the Welli will bless you; if you are coming with an evil intent, you will be punished (6).
8. Even animals that ate from or touched the sacred trees or the seeds that fell nearby are mortally punished (6).
C. Why are sacred trees not burned? 8. People who dared to steal property under the sacred tree walked or rode the whole night long, but the following morning they found themselves under the very same tree. (12).

Breakdown of machinery
When a road was being constructed near the sacred tree of Sheikh Saris (5 km west of Majdal Kurum) the bulldozers got stuck. The villagers called in a religious leader who "contacted" the Welli. This spirit instructed him "to divert the road 70 paces from him and than everything will be settled peacefully". This was done, and there were no more problems (9).
The traditions on breakdown of mechanical tools which were used to remove sacred trees are so robust that even when large trees were intentionally preserved in the con-

The supernatural characters of the sacred trees
The tree as the abode of the soul of a saint The most common "function" of the sacred trees in the Middle East is to serve as the abode of the spirit/soul of a saint (Welli, [42]; passim). Curtiss [[142]: 75,77,79], noted, regarding the status of the saints in the Muslim world, " ... orthodox Moslems insist that the saints are only mediators that a worshipper asks his Welli to intercede for him with God... These saints are really departed spirits, connected with some particular shrine, chosen because they revealed themselves there in the past, and where they were wont to reveal themselves now to tmose who seek for favour... The worship of saints is like that of the ancient Baalim. They are the deities whom people fear, love, serve and adore". Canaan [[40]:151] adds, along the same lines "The present-day peasant does not venerate the trees themselves but the divine power which acts in them and which is derived from a godly person whose soul is supposed to inhabit the shrine, tomb, cave or spring with which they became associated. Often these holy men have appeared in the tree itself or near by ". This attitude explains the source of the supernatural nature attributed to the sacred trees (see below).

Unusual lights/voices
Hanauer [[58]:216] reports, "On Thursday evenings especially, one sometimes sees these trees lit up, and can hear snatches of sacred instrumental music proceeding from there. It is a sign that the saints are observing a festival and exchanging visits". Lights and voices around sacred trees were already reported from Palestine as well as in other countries (Table 1). Lights were seen also on sacred graves (Palestine, 16 th century, [59]:179).
In Teutonic traditions, old churches in sacred groves originated/were built where miraculous lights had been observed, arranged in the shape of the future church. Many of the old churches are said to owe their origin to such lights being seen in a grove or wood during the night. This old tradition may serve as indirect evidence/an indication of the deeply rooted belief that sacred trees do not burn; it is still very common, in Israel, even today.

Miracles related to the tree
The motif of returning stolen property placed near a sacred grave and or a tree is already known. Rabbi Moshe of Bassula (14 th century) describes the grave of a righteous person "...and it is a grave of marble and a large stone cover (above it  [67: 124]]. The story of the casting of a body out of its grave is also told by the Bedouin in the Negev. Bar Tsvi et al. [ [68]: [84][85] tell about an unworthy person who was buried near the grave of a righteous man. His body was flung out of its grave several times until at last he was interred outside the cemetery (see below on the similar powers of graves and sacred trees).

Bleeding trees
The belief that blood flows from trees has ancient roots. One may thus conclude that the local repertoire of miracles and other supernatural characters attributed to sacred trees in our region (see also Tables 1 and 2) are, more or less similar to those in Europe as well as in our region.

Granting a divine favour/cure/blessing
Objects near sacred graves "absorb the sanctity of the place and/or have magic powers in the Muslim world" [ [116]:106] as well as in Christianity [ [117]:1086] and are used later by the believers. It is not surprising to find "seepage" of the supernatural powers of sacred graves to sacred trees, so some functions of the saint's grave such as: granting barakeh, property protection (Table 2), swearing, and taking vows were transferred to the sacred tree (even in the absence of the grave) or granted by the saint himself associated with the tree (see below).
The manner in which clothes are tied to a sacred tree to transfer personal troubles [ [118]: passim; [41]: passim, and references therein) or using objects that "absorb" the supernatural powers of the tree are typical examples of contact magic. Frazer [[119]:18] explained "things which have once been in contact with each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. Practically all these manners are methods of "conveying the divine effluence" [ [118]:467] from the tree to the devoted people. In this way the supernatural being, which is connected with the sacred tree, has the power to grant petitions (e.g. "wishing trees") which is common worldwide ( Table 2).  [133], II: .

Breakdown of machinery
In Israel, even species of some plants or parts of it that are not known as having medicinal properties, such as the leaves of a sacred oak (Quercus calliprinos), are regarded as omnipotent forms of medication when administrated externally as a poultice (6) or as a decoction (8). Leaves of a "secular" oak are not used for healing. Clearly, the leaves acquire the healing powers when granted by saints; just as actual medicinal plants gathered in the vicinity of the sacred tree are more potent than their conspecifics (5).
Most of the uses of sacred trees for divine blessings or cures or as talismans ( It seems that this manner has now disappeared in northern Israel although it is still flourishing in the oral tradition.

Punishable deeds associated with sacred trees
According to Table 3, one can see, more or less, the same punishable deeds in relation to sacred trees/groves/forest worldwide. Only two items, disturbing praying people (only Druze) and theft of objects deposited under are tree are, as far as the author is aware, limited to our region the Middle East.
The list of the various limitations and prohibitions in so many diverse cultures may reflect the deep rooted veneration of trees throughout the course of history as well as in our own day.

Punishments following the violation of sacred trees
The list of punishments following the violation of sacred trees/groves/forests (Table 4) shows that all the data recorded by us from Israel are already known from our region and/or worldwide. The magnitude of belief in the supernatural powers of the sacred trees is reflected by the high frequency of the data concerning serious punishments (Table 4). There are some noticeable quantitative variations among the three groups studied, especially concerning the death punishment, divine punishment and heart of a family member. We cannot see any trend in these differences and we cannot offer any explanation for it. The data shown in Table 4 serve also as clear evidence for the ubiquitous distribution of tree worship.

Use of wood for religious purposes
Wood from sacred trees may be used, without fear of punishment, for religious purposes such as at festivals to honour the saint [Palestine: [40] Table 4). In Israel we recorded no case of ransom or payment; this aspect seems related only to communities with special laws protecting the sacred groves and the gods that live in them.
In some cases special prayers, ceremonies, fines, offerings, or sacrifices are practised to ask permission or forgiveness of the wood gods before a tree can be cut down or materials are extracted from the sacred area, for example,  [14]: passim]. This is done to prevent the expected malignant response of the deities, saints, or gods. Such "preventive" actions were never recorded in Israel.

Monotheistic vs. polytheistic sacred trees
The relationship between people, tree worship, and punishment by the sacred tree for misdeeds evinces a kind of a repeated pattern. In the Middle East, as well as in Europe, tree worship today is practised by individuals making personal petitions. Tree worship is, by no means, a part of the official monotheistic governing religion [ [42]. Punishment falls upon the offender himself, his family or his property (Table 4). But, in many polytheistic religions, tree worship is established on a community basis which is influenced by the divine entity to which the trees are dedicated (see below).
A possible reason for this putative pattern seems to be related to the meaning of the trees in the life of the community in their present habitat. Most monotheistic tree worship is confined to temperate zones; and the "unit of veneration" nowadays is mainly a single tree. The tree/ wood/grove has almost no importance in the religious/ economic/social life of the community.
In many polytheistic religions, most of which still prevail in areas of tropical or semitropical vegetation, the "unit of veneration" is the sacred wood/grove/forest, which is the centre of well-established religious ceremonies; and its veneration is a part of the regular worship, and led sometimes by official figures. The wood/forest/grove is essential to their very existence (e.g., source of medicinal plants, food, fuel and/or protection of watersheds), or was so until recently. The systems of punishment were established as a means to protect the wood/forest/grove resources from over-exploitation as an essential resource of the community. Any wilful harm to the trees was regarded as a direct act of sacrilege against the supernatural power that is the benefactor of the community and which may punish the whole community in revenge. Punishment occurs frequently against the whole community, and includes calamities such as fire, flood, or plague. Thus, there is a need to repatriate the supernatural power who guards the community and to whom the trees are dedicated. This pattern has been recorded fully or partly in: Vietnam: [

Conclusion
In the discussion of the reason for the sanctification of trees [[40]:30, 38; [42]] the close relation with graves of Muslim saints (Wellis) has been shown. The spirit of the Welli dwells in his grave or in a tree dedicated to him. It is not surprising to see the close similarity between the miraculous powers of the holy grave and the sacred trees.
In the Muslim sector the close similarity between the ability to punish and the protective properties of graves and sacred trees is clearly evident. In both cases the protective power is the Welli's spirit, which the people admire and fear.
The Druze believes in the transmigration of souls: a person's body is a kind of clothing for the soul and, with death, the soul passes to the body of a newborn child [[57]:60]. The Druze never considers sacred trees as an abode for the souls of righteous figures of righteous figures' souls, and certainly do not relate trees to graves [42]. It was, therefore, unexpected to see that even the Druze ascribe supernatural powers to sacred trees. Their fear and admiration of such trees are of the same magnitude as in the Muslim sectors [( Table 3, [41]; [42]]. While the Muslims credit the miraculous powers (e.g., the trees' immunity to fire) to the souls of Wellis or of God, the Druze ascribe them to their prophets or religious leaders themselves.
A comparison with the Christian world shows a clear similarity between the miracles performed by the sacred trees (via the spirit of the Welli) and the miraculous powers of saints and their trees. We may recall that many pagan sacred trees were Christianized and dedicated to saints