Saving the local tradition: ethnobotanical survey on the use of plants in Bologna district (Italy)

Background Traditional knowledge about plants is unfortunately subjected to a progressive loss, mainly due to globalization and depopulation of the rural areas. This work enhances the ethnobotanical knowledge from Northern Italy, specifically Bologna district, and contributes to preserving Italy’s plant-based traditional knowledge and to valorize local resources also in view of an ecological transition. Methods The study was conducted between 2010 and 2016 in Bologna district encompassing 22 municipalities, which were grouped into three areas: hill, mountain, and plain. In total, 1172 key informants were interviewed, ranging in age from 50 to 85 years, and having strong links with traditional activities in the area. Results The final inventory included 374 taxa belonging to 91 families. Among these, 251 were wild native, 40 wild alien, 74 cultivated and 6 were products bought from the market. Hill, mountain, and plain provided information on 278, 213, and 110 taxa, respectively. The most cited families were Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae. The information was systematized in 12 use categories (UC): medicinal (MED), food, cosmetic, domestic, superstitious–magical–religious (SMR), agropastoral, craft, repellent-insecticide, veterinary, toxic, games, other uses and information. The most relevant UC were in turn divided into subcategories. A descriptive table with all the results was also created. MED was the most relevant UC (310 taxa), and among the 17 MED subcategories, the most significant ones were: gastroenteric (160 taxa), respiratory (133 taxa), and dermatologic (122 taxa). Food was also relevant (197 taxa, and 16 subcategories), and the widest food subcategory was nutraceutical (98 taxa). In cosmetic, the most relevant subcategory was skin treatment (37 taxa). Within SMR, the majority of the plants were cited to heal a disease in a ritual or superstitious way (15 taxa), while for agropastoral, the majority of the taxa (29) were cited as feed. Conclusions The data collected has highlighted a significant traditional use of plants in Bologna district. Some plants or uses emerged for the first time from an ethnobotanical study carried out in Italy. The inclusion of a large number of municipalities and informants enabled the collection of a wide spectrum of data, encompassing various uses, anecdotes, and historical curiosities, which are crucial to preserve from being forgotten. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-024-00664-1.


Introduction
The striving to push toward a more sustainable development has generated a growing interest in plants, ecosystems, circular economy, and green practices.All these topics are closely linked to the knowledge about the traditional uses of plants.This is one of the reasons why, nowadays, ethnobotany studies should be considered more and more important, making possible the redevelopment and conservation of cultural heritage, promoting the valorization of local resources, and consequently raising awareness on the importance of protecting plant biodiversity.
Until the nineteenth century, the Italian economy was mainly based on agriculture, and in this context, the knowledge of plants played a central role.In fact, plants were not only used as food and feed but also as medication for humans and animals, and for several other uses such domestic, agropastoral, and crafts, encompassing almost all the aspects of life.Additionally, plant ritualistic and superstitious uses were also an important aspect of this body of knowledge, which should not be overlooked.
The depopulation of rural areas in Italy began in the second half of the nineteenth century due to the agricultural crisis.This phenomenon became even more significant after the Second World War, as the economy underwent industrialization and agriculture became mechanized.As a result, the traditional knowledge of rural areas began to lose importance, and unfortunately, today, this information is at risk of being completely lost.
The mechanization of agriculture has had a negative impact also on plant biodiversity, unlike the traditional practices, which were contributing significantly to the stimulation of biodiversity, generating high environmental heterogeneity [1].For instance, the abandonment of grazing, leading to reforestation, and the adoption of intensive agriculture have reduced the availability of habitats for many species [2].
The Bologna district, located in Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy, remains still underexplored from an ethnobotanical perspective.In fact, in this area, only one study has been published, and it focuses solely on some food plants [3].
The Bologna district is a heterogeneous area characterized by three geographical zones (plain, hill, and mountain) which differ in social, economic, and environmental aspects.In order to assess the ethnobotanical knowledge of the district, we considered various municipalities covering all the three geographical areas.These traditions are mostly kept by a small portion of the population, primarily the elderly.Therefore, the objective of this work was to systematize, preserve, and help to disseminate the traditional knowledge on plants in Bologna district, safeguarding it from the risk of being lost.

Area
This study was carried out from 2010 to 2016 in 22 municipalities representative of the Bologna district (Fig. 1).These municipalities, with a total area of 1811.4101km 2 , represent the 48.9% of the entire area of Bologna district.Areas crossed by the highway, highly industrialized, or scantly inhabited were excluded.The municipalities were classified into three categories: plain, hill, and mountain areas, based on data from the Italian National Institute of Statistics (https:// www.istat.it/ it/ archi vio/ 156224) [4].A number of inhabitants, GPS coordinates, altitude of each municipality are reported in Table 1.

Plain
In this study, the plain area included 3 municipalities: Molinella, Medicina, and Budrio, with a total area of 407.1371 km 2 (26.3% of total plain area of the district).The total number of informants was 153 (52.63% male and 47.37% female).All the municipalities have an urbanization level of 3 (rural zone, low population density) [4].

Mountain
For the mountain area, 7 municipalities were considered: Castel d' Aiano, Gaggio Montano, Lizzano in Belvedere, Monghidoro, Monzuno, San Benedetto Val di Sambro, and Porretta Terme (currently included in the municipality of Alto Reno Terme), with a total area of 442.782 km 2  (56.1% of total mountain area of the district).The total number of informants was 268 (46.27% male and 53.73% female).All the municipalities have an urbanization level of 3 [4].Two natural protected areas are located within this zone: Parco del Corno alle Scale (49.7449 km 2 ) and partially Riserva Naturale Contrafforte Pliocenico (7.5740 km 2 ).

Interviews
The informants were born and raised in the area.They were all baptized catholic and of Caucasian ethnicity.All of them were over 50 years of age, with limited education, and many of them were retired.Table 1 reports age and gender distribution of the interviewees.People under 50 of age were not involved in this study, as they possessed scant or no traditional knowledge of plants, in fact, when asked to be interviewed they were just recommending us to interrogate the older people of the village.In fact, initially, people were randomly chosen, and then, additional informants were selected with the help of those who had already participated.
The interviews took place at various locations, including social centers, retirement homes, farms, mountain huts, parks, bars, and during village festivals.They lasted around 30 min, during which it was took note (in a written form) of all the information given divided by plant.The anonymity of the interviewees was respected during the data collection process.The work done agrees with what is stated in the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) [5].
The plant species mentioned by the informants were identified according to Pignatti [6], and the scientific names were updated using The World Flora Online (WFO) Plant List [7].In fact, the plant names were given most of the time in the dialect of Bologna (which can have minoritarian inflection variations).The transcription of dialectal names in Table 2 was based on Ungarelli [8], Lepri and Vitali [9], and Boni and Patri [10].Voucher specimens of the identified plants were deposited in the Herbarium of Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna (Index Herbariorum: BOLO) [11] and are reported in Table 2.
Once finished all the interviews, the information was merged as reported in Table 2, and the data were schematized in an Excel matrix, reporting in rows the taxa and in the columns specific use categories and related subcategories, citation number, plant preparation, and used organ.This data matrix was then organized in pivot tables to easily access the information and to obtain all the graphs.The work done in Table 2 strived to preserve the original detailed information with few adjustments.The number of citations refers to the number of times a given organ of a plant (eventually subjected to a specific preparation) has been mentioned Fig. 1 Map of Bologna district and the investigated area.Green = plain area, yellow = hill area, red = mountain area.The investigated municipalities are: (1) Molinella, (2) Medicina, (3) Budrio, (4) Fontanelice, (5) Ozzano dell'Emilia, (6) Casalfiumanese, (7) Borgo Tossignano, (8) Monte San Pietro, (9) Castel del Rio, (10) Castel San Pietro Terme, (11) Zola Predosa, (12) Monterenzio, (13) Pianoro, ( 14) San Lazzaro di Savena, (15) Crespellano (currently included in the municipality of Valsamoggia), ( 16) Caste d' Aiano, (17) Gaggio Montano, (18) Lizzano in Belvedere, (19) Monzuno, (20) Monghidoro, (21) Porretta Terme (currently included in the municipality of Alto Reno Terme), (22) San Benedetto Val di Sambro for the same use.As a result, the same informant may have determined multiple citations for the same plant.
Two additional tables were created to facilitate the extraction of information from Table 2, namely Additional file 1: Tables S2 and S3, which list the taxa cited in each use category and relative subcategories.

Bibliographic survey
In order to compare the results of this study to the general ethnobotanical knowledge in Italy, it was consulted, in first place, the book by Guarrera [12], which reviews the ethnobotanical uses of the plants in Italy and includes all the use categories here considered.Twenty-two plants resulted not listed by Guarrera, and the focus was restricted on the 13 wild native (considered most relevant for ethnobotany).Hence, a bibliographic survey was carried out on these 13 plants to investigate whether the traditional uses here found were reported also in previous ethnobotanical studies.This survey was performed by Scopus and PubMed research services using as key words: the plant species (either with the actual scientific name or any name used before) AND "ethnobotany, " or "traditional uses, " or to restrict the search, the specific use(s) found in our work.

General picture and comparison with literature
Three hundred and seventy-four taxa (belonging to 92 families, and 276 genera) (Additional file 1: Table S1, Table 2) emerged from the survey, leading to the acquisition and systematization of the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with them.Out of these 374 taxa, 251 are plants wild native, 40 wild alien, 74 cultivated and 6 are natural products purchased by people from the market.
The study, involving a total of 1172 informants, was conducted in 22 municipalities in the district of Bologna (Fig. 1), which were grouped into three areas: hill, mountain, and plain.
The vegetation in Bologna district is influenced by altitude and longitude gradients.The altitude gradient

Table 1 Details of the municipalities and the informants involved
Altitude, classification in P = plain, H = hill, and M = mountain; GPS coordinates; total number of inhabitants (at the time the interviews were carried on); and gender distribution, range of age of the interviewees, and total number of interviewees.The first column indicates the numeration consistent with the ones reported in the map given in Fig. 1 N Municipality Area Altitude (m a.s.l.) Wild-alien MED: Flower infusion together with milk (1H) or flower decoction (1H) is used for sore throat (1H).The infusion of leaves and flowers is emollient (1H) and useful to soothe the oral cavity (1H).Root decoction calms cough (2H), is expectorant (3H) and its fumes are useful to treat bronchitis (3H).Root and flower infusion is used to treat dental abscesses (1H) and for eye rinse in case of conjunctivitis (1H)

GPS coordinates Total inhabitants Range of Age M F Total interviewees
Alkekengi officinarum Moench BOLO0029221

Balunzin ròs Vessicaeria
Wild-native FOOD: Fruits are eaten as a dessert or used to make a jam (5H) MED: Fruit infusion or raw fruits are diuretic (3H).Fruit juice is laxative (1H).Dried berries (without the flower calyx) are powdered and placed on the legs in case of edema, due to sitting in the proximity of the braziers (1 M) TOXIC: Green parts of the plant are poisonous (5H) Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.)Cavara & Grande BOLO0003342 Alliaria Erba di âj Wild-native MED: Crushed fresh leaves are applied on the skin as an anti-inflammatory, to treat sores and acne (1 M) Cultivated FOOD: Onion is widely used in cookery to prepare several dishes (14H), and it is one of the most used flavors (8H).Bulb is eaten in salad since it has disinfecting properties for the throat and oral cavity (2P, 2 M), and for its beneficial effect on the intestine (1 M).It ameliorates blood circulation (2P, 1H), has diuretic proprieties (1H, 2 M), it is used for rheumatism (3 M), it is purifying for the liver (1 M), and is a sleep-promoting agent (2 M).Generally, eating the raw bulb is considered fortifying (2 M) MED: Bulb is eaten against tapeworm (3H).Bulb (row or marinated vinegar) disinfects the throat (1H).A clove of bulb calms the itch if rubbed on a mosquito bite (1P, 9H, 1 M).Bulb slices are applied on insect (1 M) (bee 1H) stings to relieve the pain.The film between the bulb layers is put on wounds for its high disinfectant power (1 M).A boiled bulb together with potatoes is used in compress in case of toothache (1H).A boiled bulb has laxative properties (3H, 1 M), lowers blood pressure (1H, 1 M), and is used in cataplasm to calm stomachache (8H).Cataplasm obtained by mixing bulb and butter is helpful against hemorrhoids (2H).Bulb juice is disinfectant (1 M) and is used on burns (3H), on insect bites (1 M), and to reduce the itch due to insect and spider bits (1H), it is used in case of cough (1H) or fever (1H).Bulb infusion helps to lose weight for its laxative properties (2H), it is used in case of colitis as a refreshing agent (1H), and as a diuretic (2H).Bulb decoction has diuretic properties (3H), and it is drunk to purify and fortify the body (3 M).The bulb is boiled in milk, and it is drunk against cough (1P).Syrup made with onion, sugar, and honey cures colds (3H).Leaf in compress is used in case of arthrosis (1H).Leaves are used to treat wounds (2P) SMR: Twelve bulbs were traditionally used to predict rainy and dry months (1P, 1 M) Cultivated FOOD: Garlic is widely used in cookery (18H, 5 M), and in dishes such as "agliata" (a soup with bins) (1 M).Garlic are used to flavor some dishes (9H) MED: Garlic is given to eat (8H, 2 M) or smell (1P, 3H, 2 M) to kids to prevent intestinal parasite infection.Raw garlic is eaten to combat intestinal parasites (1H) and as an antidote for viper bite (1H).The bulb lowers blood pressure (2P, 30H, 6 M), it improves blood circulation (1H), is beneficial for the heart (1P), and it reduces cholesterol (2P, 2H).To chew the bulb calm toothache (2P) and sore throat (1 M).A clove of the bulb is kept in the mouth or in the nose against cold (1H).A clove of garlic is rubbed on ears to calm otitis (2H), on cold limbs to reduce chilblains (3H), and on the nose against cold (2H).The bulb is crushed in a mortar to obtain a juice useful to reduce calluses (2H, 2 M), warts (1 M), insect bites (1H, 3 M), and in case of viper or dog bites (1H).Ten bulbils are crushed and chopped in half a cup of oil, this semisolid preparation is rubbed on sore bones (1 M).The minced bulb in cataplasm is used to calm pain (1P), in particular neuralgia (1P).A paste obtained with a clove minced with breadcrumbs and a bit of milk is used to treat whitlow ("giradito") (1 M).Cloves of garlic are crushed and mixed with olive oil to obtain an ointment used topically on the belly for digestive issues (4H), to eliminate intestinal parasites (2H), applied under the feet soles to lower the blood pressure (3H), and used to treat ear infection (2H     CRAFT: Chestnut wood is used to make poles, boxes, baskets, and fences (3 M).When the tree shows its first buds it has more lymph, so the bark is easily removed.In this period chestnut branches were cut to make "musette" or "musole", a kind of flute (3 M).Kids make necklaces with the leaves, used as an ornament (1 M) DOM: Leaves are harvested in August after the first rain, dried under the sun and stored during the winter to be used in the preparation of "tigelle" (a typical bread).Specifically, leaves are put between the dough and the pan to prevent the dough from sticking during cooking (3 M) AGROPA: Leaves were sometimes used, instead of the more expensive straw, to make animal bedding ( The fruits, deprived of their outer shell, are eaten as hazelnuts (1 M) or roasted and used as an alternative to coffee (2 M).Shepherds used to eat young leaves as hunger quencher (1 M) MED: Bark decoctions is antipyretic (2 M).From the charcoal of the wood is obtained a balsamic substance, which is used for fumigations in case of cold (1 M) CRAFT: The wood is very resistant and it was often used to craft furniture (4 M) and musical instruments (1 M) DOM: The wood is used as fuel for the fireplace (1 M)       MED: Seed flour in cataplasm, is used to cure furuncles (2P), wound infections (4H), and abscesses of insect bites (2P); applied on the thorax, cures cough (5P, 1H), sore throat (1P) and bronchitis (1P), by enhancing catarrh expulsion (5P, 3H).Seed flour is used in warm wraps as a remedy for cold (24H), stomachache (8H), muscular inflammation (1H), and, applied on the belly, cures constipation (2H).Boiled seeds wrapped in a piece of fabric and placed on the chest is cough sedative (14H).A paste obtained by mixing seeds with water, is put on a gauze applied on the chest as a remedy against cough (3 M), pneumonia, and bronchitis (11H).Two teaspoons of seeds are left in a glass of water overnight, then the water is drunk for its laxative effect (15H, 1 M).Seed infusion is anti-inflammatory (1 M), laxative (1 M), stimulating of immune system (1 M) and cures cystitis (1 M).Leaves decoction is used in wrap on the belly in case of flu (1H).Leaves in cataplasm are applied on the belly in case of cough (2H), or on ankles in case of sprain (2H) COSM: Seed infusion is applied on damaged hair (2 M), and is emollient for the skin (        Cultivated FOOD: Fruits are used to make a liquor (1 M).Fruits are macerated to make "grappa" (1P).Fruits are eaten (8H), and in high amounts, they are laxative (3H).The fruits were stored in the cellar amidst straw throughout the summer and eaten in the winter, they are rich in minerals and vitamins (5 M).Fruits were usually dried and eaten since they are cheaper than dried fruits (1 M) MED: Infusion of leaves, bark, buds, and flowers is a diuretic, and it is drunk three times per day to cure urinary tract affections (2H) CRAFT: Wood is used to craft musical instruments (1H)  The flowers are used to prepare sweet pancakes (1P), jam (1P, 2 M), and a refreshing drink (2H), prepared by macerating the petals of 10 flowers in water for a day (1P).With the petals a liquor is prepared (1P); it is better not to use the inner white part because it is bitter.Leaves are used to flavor tea (1H).Fruits are used to make "grappa" (1H, 1 M).Shoots, called "peloni" (2 M) were peeled and eaten for their sweet taste (1 M), and as a remedy for sore throat (1 M), and earache (3 M).They are beneficial for the liver (1 M), gums (1 M), and digestion (1 M).The fresh fruits are eaten because they are rich in vitamin C (5 M, 1P).Fruits, collected in October-November are used to make jam (10 M, 5H).The fruits, also called "pizzincule", are sweet and their jam has anti-inflammatory (1 M), vitaminizing (1H, 1 M), remineralizing (17H), and astringent (15H) properties.It also helps to prevent flu (2H), and it cures sore throat (3H) MED: Fruit jam is astringent (1H, 1 M) and helps to heal the wounds on the sides of the mouth (1 M).Fruits pulp is a wound healer (1 M).Fruits are macerated in water for some days and the obtained liquid is drunk in case of cough and cold (2 M).Fruit decoction cures flu (3H, 1 M), because it is rich in C vitamin and other vitamins (7H).Dry fruit infusion is drunk in case of coughs (1 M) and colds (9 M).Fruit and leaf infusion is used for gargling against sore throat (1 M).A syrup useful to treat diarrhea in infants is made with fruits by pounding and boiling them in water and finally adding sugar (3H).Flower infusion is used to wash the oral cavity in case of sore throat (1H) and together with honey is used in case of inflamed mouth (2H) and tonsils (2H), flue (1H).Washed petal infusion is drunk in case of cold (5 M), flu (2 M), seasonal allergy symptoms (3 M), cough (3 M), asthma (2 M) and throat inflammation (1 M); the infusion once cooled is used to rinse the eyes affected by conjunctivitis (3 M).The dried petals infusion is laxative (1P).Petals macerated in water are used, as eyewash, for reddened eyes (1H), and to treat neonatal candidiasis (1H).Petal juice is used in the case of rosacea (1H) and as eye drops to wash eyes (1H).Leaf or flower infusion is used in case of diarrhea (3H, 1 M), and it is used to wash mouth or skin (1H) to heal burns and wounds (1H).Leaf infusion together with honey and agrimony flowers, is used to wash the mouth in case of difficulties in swallowing (2H).Leaf infusion together with plums and frangula bark is laxative (3H).Leaf and seed decoction are used in the case of intestinal parasites and intestinal disorders (2H) TOXIC: The internal hairs of the fruits are toxic; thus, it is important to remove them before the preparation of the jam (13H) COSM: Petal juice is used as perfume (1H) and to produce "Acqua di rose" (rose's water) to lighten the skin (1H).Fruits are used to prepare ointment toning for the skin (1H).Fruit pulp is used to shoot hands (1 M) DOM: Petals and fruits were used to create natural dye (1 M).Flowers are used to perfume linden (3H) SMR: It is believed that fruit decoction is useful in case of a bite by a rabid dog (1H, 1 M), which is why the plant is called "rosa canina" (doggy rose).It is believed that eating the fruits once a day at sunset immunizes against all flu and diseases (1H) CRAFT: Petals were collected during Pentecost to adorn the churchyard (1 M)  MED: Leaves are eaten to increase the sexual desire (1H).Smelling rosemary during the day promotes cold healing (2 M).Leaf decoction is used to wash genitals to cure thrush (5P), and in the case of hemorrhoids (7P), it is also used to cure skin inflammation (1P).Leaf decoction together with lemon and sage is used against gastritis (3H).Leaf decoction together with sage, lemon and devil's grass (Cynodon dactylon) is used against gastritis (1H).Leaf infusion, drunk two times per day, calms colitis (2H), it is useful in case of migraine (1H), it is digestive (7H) and expectorant (1H).Leaf infusion together to sage prevent flu (2H).Leaf infusion (together with sage) is used as digestive (2H).Leaf infusion together with sage and mint leaves, drunk once a day for one month, is useful against arthrosis (2H).Leaves and branches are used in a footbath to remove fatigue and pain (1P, 1H).Flower infusion is useful against oral cavity inflammation (1H).Leaf and flower infusion is useful against intestinal conditions and abdominal swelling, it is recommended to drink 3 cups a day before the main meals (1 M).Branch infusion in warm water is drunk to treat hemorrhoids and varicose veins (1H), liver pain (1 M), coughs (7 M) and colds (7 M), to improve blood circulation (1H) and digestion (1H).
Branch decoction in wine is used to wash and disinfect wounds (1H).Branch macerate in wine is useful for the liver (1H), it is diuretic (1H) and deflates belly (1H).Branch infusion made in wine is useful in case of asthma (3H), and as remedy to relieve fatigue (1 M).Branch macerate is used in footbath to improve blood circulation (8H); the fumes of this macerate open the lungs (2H) and heal cold (2 M, 1H).Branch powder is placed on wounds to promote healing (1H) COSM: Rosemary wraps are applied to oily hair to remove dandruff (2P).Leaf infusion is used to wash hair to strengthen it (1H).Flower infusion is used to strengthen the scalp (1H).Branch infusion in warm water is drunk in the morning to purify the skin (1H) and to make it more beautiful (2 M), and, in packs, it is anti-cellulitis (1H, 1 M) REP: Branches are put in the armchair to keep away moths (1H, 2 M).Fresh leaves rubbed on hands keep insects away (2H) Rubus idaeus L. BOLO0034966 Lampone Wild-native FOOD: A high amount of fresh fruits are eaten by pregnant women to help fetal development (1 M).Fruits are washed and eaten fresh for their vitamin supply and pleasant taste (7 M) MED: Leaf infusion is drunk for two weeks to cure sore throat (1H) and gums inflammation (1H), it is refreshing (1H), diuretic (2 M), anti-diarrhea (1 M), anti-inflammatory of the respiratory tract (1 M) and digestive (1H)

Rubus ulmifolius Schott BOLO0053719
Rovo Râza Ràggia Ràza Rov Râza Wild-native FOOD: Fruits are eaten (4H) and used to prepare sweets (2H), liquor (2H), and jam (6H), which is useful in case of cough (8H), sore throat (6H) and diarrhea (1H).The brambles are eaten cooked and considered beneficial for the throat (1 M) MED: Aerial part decoction is used to calm abdominal spasms (1P).Leaf decoction is useful against diarrhea (7H), inflamed gums (3H), and irregular menstruation (1H).Crushed leaves are used in cataplasm on plagues (3H).The external surface of the leaf put on wounds promotes the healing of the infection (1 M).Leaves together with a slice of bacon are applied on pimples (called "bugni"), promoting pus spillage (1H).An ointment made with leaves and butter is useful against hemorrhoids (3H).Root decoction is used as an anti-inflammatory for the oral cavity (3H) SMR: Leaves are used for the ritual of "segnatura" to heal from herpes zoster (called "fuoco di Sant' Antonio"): a leaf is passed over the person body while spells are cast.The ritual is repeated for several days (1H) COSM: Fruit juice with milk is an emollient and firming lotion for the skin (3H) DOM: The bramble, called "razze", peeled and deprived of thorns, is used as a tie for wheat (  Cultivated FOOD: Leaves are used to flavor meat (1 M), and to prepare several dishes (5P, 16H, 10 M), since they make food more digestible (9H).Aerial parts are used to make liquor (1H), which is done using sage, white wine, and a bit of alcohol, and this enolite has a tonic effect (1 M) MED: Leaves are disinfectant on mouth sores (3P, 3H), and are rubbed on teeth and gums to fight halitosis (5H).Leaves (5M) or aerial parts (1M) rubbed on gums have anti-inflammatory action.In case of toothache, leaves are chewed (1M).Leaf macerate is used to wash the mouth in case of toothache or inflammation (3H).Leaf decoction promotes digestion (2P, 4M), relieves stomach pain (1M), it is useful in case of diarrhea (1M), as anti-depressive (1M), to face menopause (1M), to treat menstrual cycle conditions (1M), and it reduces autumnal cold sweat (1P).
Leaves decoction is also used to make rinses in case of inflamed gums (1M).Leaves decoction with lemon, rosemary, and devil's grass (Cynodon dactylon) is used against gastritis (1H).Leaves decoction together with lemon and rosemary is useful against gastritis (3H), while together with parsley is useful in case of delay or lack of menstrual period (3H).Sage decoction is used against menstrual pains (2H).Leaf infusion is anti-inflammatory (1M), digestive (7H, 1M), diuretic (1M), expectorant (2M), it calms flu (1M), cough (4H, 2M), cold (4M), asthma (1H), hot flashes (1H), colitis (3H), gastritis (2H), abdominal cramps (1H), and to gargle against toothache (1H).The same infusion regularizes the menstrual cycle (1H) and is useful for menopause (1H), it reduces flatulence (1H) and sweating of hands and feet (1H).Dried leaf infusion, once cooled, is used for oral rinses for canker sores (1M, 1H), gingivitis (1M), and infections (1M).In case of toothache, leaf infusion is used to wash the mouth (2H).Sage leaf infusion together with lavender, violet, and chamomilla is useful against arthritis (1H).Infusion of sage leaves, rosemary, and mint is used against arthrosis (2H).Leaf infusion together with thyme, linden, and vervain cures headache (6H); together with rosemary treats flu (2H).A syrup made boiling leaves with apples and sugar is used to calm cough (1M).Sage branches are used to make fumes which promotes the healing of sore throat (3H) and cold (3H).Leaves have aphrodisiac power (1M) COSM: Leaf macerate together with lavender, thyme, and juniper is used on oily skin (2H).Dried leaves infusion, once cooled, is used for dry hair (1M).Leaves rubbed on teeth have a whitening effect (6P, 13H, 8M).Powdered leaves together with lime are rubbed on teeth to whiten them (2H).Leaves are placed in water for footbaths to limit sweating in the feet (1M) SMR: The plant protects from curse (1H) Wild-native FOOD: Fruits are used to make sweet "frittelle" (17H, 5P).Fresh fruits are eaten as an energy source (1 M), and they are laxative (1 M).Fresh fruits are used to make a jam (22H, 3 M), endowed with depurative (5H) and laxative properties (4 M), a liquor (6H, 3 M), and a syrup, which is slimming (1 M), refreshing (1P).Flowers are used in cookery (5H), and are added to water to prepare a thirst-quenching drink, which is purifying and rich in vitamins (4 M).Dried flowers in tissue bags are used to flavor wine (1H).Flower jam is laxative (2 M).Flowers are macerated in water together with lemon to obtain a syrup that is remineralizing (1H) and diuretic (1 M).Flower liquor is digestive (4P).Fruits and flowers are prepared in jam (15H) and liquor (3H) MED: Fresh leaves were pounded and crushed with vinegar and salt and collected with gauze, which is then used to treat mouth abscesses (1 M).Boiled leaves heal burns and wounds (6P).Leaf ointment is useful in case of hemorrhoids (1H).Fresh fruits are used to make a juice to treat rheumatism (1 M). White fruit decoction is beneficial for the respiratory tract (1 M).Flower infusion is febrifuge that stimulates sweating and the consequent elimination of toxins (1 M), it is drunk in case of cold (3H, 2 M), cough (2 M), asthma (1 M), urinary inflammation (2H), and to improve blood circulation (1 M).The same infusion is diuretic (2H), relaxing (4H) and reduces migraine (4H) and headache (1H).Flower infusion in compress is placed on wounds and burns (1H, 2 M) (it needs to be kept for at least 20 min (1 M)), and on eyes in case of stye (1H, 1 M).Flower infusion together with mint, violet and linden, treats cold (1H).Flower decoction is used against earache (2H) and hemorrhoids (1H).Flowers boiled in milk prevent gout (2H).Flower syrup is useful in case of cold (1H).Flowers are macerated in "grappa" to obtain an alcoholate used in rubs and massages in case of rheumatism (1H).
Flower jam is useful in case of colds, flu and cough (2H), Flowers and leaves are crushed and mixed with honey to obtain a cream, which improves blood circulation of legs (2H).Oleolite of branches together with olive leaves is used against burns (17H).An ointment made with elder and elm bark together with olive oil is used in case of burns (2H).Bark infusion cures flu (2H), migraine (1 M), and it is diuretic (1 M).Bark soaked for 30 days in a liter of white wine, is drunk diluted in water, for joint pains (1 M), hands rheumatism (1 M), and cystitis (1 M).
Exudate from the bark is collected to be applied on a contused body part (1 M) SMR: Leaves are rubbed on warts and then closed in a pot, which has to be buried, and, as soon as the leaves rot in the pot, the warts are healed (2H).An ancient legend said that whoever found an elder tree in the shadow of a willow was very lucky and had to cut some wooden circles, which became powerful talismans to be carried during dangerous journeys (1 M).
According to an old peasant saying to burn elder wood was a bad omen (1 M), and its ashes invite the devil to enter the house (1 M).In making flutes, stems have to be carved at night before the cockcrow, otherwise the instrument sounds hoarse (1H) CRAFT: Elder stems are used to make flutes (1H, 1 M).The hoe handle is made from elder branches (1P).Flexible branches were used to replace the missing branches of the Christmas tree (1 M) DOM: Fresh fruits are used to make ink (1 M, 6H).Clusters of white fruits were placed in layers alternated with seasonal fruit to promote its preservation (1 M) OUI: Branches were smoked instead of cigarettes (1 M).Black fruits are used to fish freshwater fishes (2H) The flower is given to the loved one to make them fall in love (3P)     In the lowland, the vegetation is characterized by ruderal, disturbance-tolerant, and vegetal species in the cultivated areas; exotic species are numerous and abundant, especially along transport infrastructures, rivers, and drainage canals.Mixed Quercus forests (Q.pubescens Willd., Q. petraea (Matt.)Liebl., Q. cerris L.) are the natural vegetation in the hilly and sub-montane areas (up to 800-900 m a.s.l.), whereas the montane belt (1000-1600 m a.s.l.) is nearly entirely dominated by Fagus sylvatica L. forests.In the subalpine belt, the plant landscape is characterized by wide Vaccinium myrtillus L. and V. gaultherioides Bigelow heathlands, here and there mixed with Juniperus communis L. [13,14].
The three areas: hill, mountain, and plain, gave information on 278, 213, and 110 taxa, respectively.Noteworthy, only 63 of them were in common between all three areas (Fig. 2A).It does not surprise that in the plain, which is highly urbanized and with reduced local flora, were identified only 16 plants cited exclusively in this area (Fig. 2A).
All the detailed information on the cited uses of the taxa is summarized in Table 2, striving to offer a complete picture of the traditional knowledge held by the local people of the investigated area.
The most relevant use of the plants was in traditional medicine (Fig. 3A).In fact, MED was the most important UC both in terms of number of taxa (310) and number of citations, accounting for 4446 citations in total.In terms of importance, MED was immediately followed by FOOD.A picture of the number of taxa in relation of the three most relevant UC (MED, FOOD, and COSM) is given in the Venn diagram of Fig. 2B.
The results of this study point out that the emerging taxa were very versatile not only in terms of UC but also for the high diversification in the preparation and organs used for each taxon.In fact, considering all the UC, the majority of the taxa (270; 72% of the total taxa) had more than one preparation, and, similarly, 230 taxa (61.3% of the total) had more than one organ of interest.
The most frequent preparations were infusion and decoction administrated per os or for external use.Focusing only on MED and FOOD, the most used organ was the leaf (leaf of 158 taxa were in MED and 63 in FOOD), followed by the flower (81 taxa MED and 35 FOOD), and the fruit (78 taxa MED and 47 FOOD) (Fig. 4C, D).
To obtain a first comparison of the obtained results with the general ethnobotanical knowledge of Italy, the book by Guarrera [12] was consulted.As a result, 22 plants cited in this survey were not listed there.Hence, out of these 22 plants, the focus was restricted to the 13 wild native (considered most relevant for ethnobotany), and a bibliographic survey was carried out in order to investigate whether the traditional uses of these plants here found were also reported in other ethnobotanical studies.

Food use (FOOD)
One hundred and ninety-seven taxa (52.7% of the total taxa, representing the 23% of the taxa per UC (Fig. 3A)) were cited for FOOD, and out of these, 28 taxa had only food use.The most cited taxa for this UC were Urtica dioica (185 cit.), Taraxacum spp.(153 cit.), Sonchus spp.(107 cit.).
FOOD was further divided in 16 subcategories (Fig. 4B).Five of these subcategories included plants used in general cookery: (1) Eaten row or in salad, (2) Eaten cooked (generally in soup, boiled or fried), (3) Dishes (used to prepare general dishes sweets and desserts), 4) Traditional dishes, (5) Spices, aroma, and flavor.Seven other FOOD subcategories were related to specific food preparations, namely plants used for: (6) Milk Curding, 7) Flour, (8) Jam, ( 9) Liqueur (and other alcoholic beverages), (10) Drinks, (11) Hot Beverages, (12) Coffee-substituting Beverages.Another important FOOD subcategory included plants eaten for their (13) Nutraceutical properties.Finally, the uses as ( 14) Food Preservatives, (15) Thirst Quenchers, and ( 16) Appetite Regulators were also reported.To facilitate access to the general FOOD information, Additional file 1: Table S2 reports all the taxa cited for each FOOD subcategory.Ninety-eight taxa (the highest number of taxa cited for a FOOD subcategory) were listed in the Nutraceutical subcategory.In fact, according to the informants they had diverse and numerous beneficial properties associated with their use as food.This result underlines the importance that the Mediterranean tradition has always given to what nowadays has developed into the nutraceutical approach.In general, the survey revealed that several plants are used in cookery for their detoxifying, purifying, digestive, deflating, astringent, laxative, energizing, remineralizing, and diuretic properties.Moreover, some plants were eaten for more specific beneficial effects.For instance, chili, pomegranate, or onion were recommended to improve blood circulation, strawberry to lower blood pressure, Sonchus spp.leaves for their beneficial effect on the heart, and sea barely to prevent heart conditions.Biscuits done with carob leaves are eaten to relieve stomach acidity, lettuce soup for stomachaches, wall barely (Hordeum murinum) for gastritis, and fennel to reduce vomiting associated with pregnancy.Celtis australis fruits were claimed to reduce stress and depression, walnuts to decrease stress and relieve migraines, wall barely to aid in focusing, and onions to induce sleep.Cooked rosehip shoots and dogwood fruits are eaten to relieve sore throats, strawberries to treat flu, wall barely to prevent lung conditions, and onions are eaten in salads as they have disinfecting properties for the throat and oral cavity.Several fruits, such as strawberry, medlar, cherry, and rosehip, are eaten for their anti-inflammatory properties, and Hippophae rhamnoides fruits are consumed to strengthen the immune system.Leek soup is used to cure arthritis and gout.Spinach leaves are believed to provide strength to muscles and bones.Cynara cardunculus (both flower and leaves) is considered a food with protective and curative properties on the liver.Fresh raspberries eaten in large quantities are believed to help fetal development, nettle is recommended during breastfeeding, and walnuts are claimed to help in staying young.
Forty-three species were used as spices, aroma, and flavor, including also plants chewed for their pleasant taste or to refresh the mouth, such as mint, Lamium amplexicaule (for its mint-like taste), Rumex acetosa (for the sour taste), Polypodium vulgare (for the licorice-like taste), and flowers sucked for their sweet taste, such as Lonicera periclymenum, Anacamptis morio, and Primula vulgaris.
Interestingly, 9 taxa were used to prepare hot beverages as a substitution for coffee during times of war and famine.A specific organ of these plants was roasted and drunk for the coffee-like color and bitter taste of its decoction, and they are: root of Cichorium intybus, fruits of Fagus sylvatica, fruits Hordeum vulgare, fruits of Hordeum murinum, acorns of Quercus pubescens, acorns of Quercus robur, seeds of Ruscus aculeatus, roots of Sonchus spp., and roots of Taraxacum spp.
Half of the taxa had more than one FOOD subcategory (102 taxa, 52% of FOOD taxa), and 37 taxa (19% of FOOD taxa) had more than one organ of interest, showcasing the extensive traditional knowledge about plants in cookery in the province of Bologna.The top five plants with more than one FOOD subcategories (≥ of 6 subcategories) are: Sambucus nigra (7 subcategories), Mentha spp.(6 subcategories), Achillea millefolium (6 subcategories), Rosa canina (6 subcategories), Foeniculum vulgare (6 subcategories).

Cosmetic use (COSM)
Seventy taxa were listed in the UC Cosmetic (COSM) (18.7% of total taxa, representing the 8% of the taxa per UC in Fig. 3A).The three most frequently cited species in COSM were Urtica dioica (48 cit.), Salvia officinalis (33 cit.), and Matricaria chamomilla (26 cit.).Detailed information about the preparation and organs used can be found in Table 2.
The COSM subcategories (Fig. 5A) are as follows: (1) Hair-Scalp, which includes treatments for hair loss, hair and scalp strengthening, shine and hair dyeing, as well as remedies for oily or dry hair and dandruff; (2) Skin treatment, covering cosmetic applications such as emollient, redness reduction, skin refreshment, cleansing, rejuvenating, anti-wrinkles treatments, whitening and suntan agents; (3) Cellulitis treatment, (4) Other cosmetics, which encompasses various cosmetic applications not includible in the previous subcategories, such as counteracting eye bags and swelling, reducing dark circles under the eyes, footbaths for refreshing and preventing excessive sweating, perfumes, teeth-whitening agents, and to obtain a red lipstick.To facilitate access to this information, Additional file 1: Table S2 reports the taxa cited in each COSM subcategory.
Urtica dioica had the highest number of citations in COSM (48 cit), while Juglans regia, Lavandula angustifolia, Matricaria chamomilla, Salvia officinalis, and Rosmarinus officinalis had the highest number of COSM subcategories; they were, in fact, cited in 3 diverse COSM subcategories.
The primary use among the COSM subcategories was Skin treatment, which included 37 taxa, accounting for 40% of the total listed in COSM.

Domestic (DOM) and Craft (CRAFT) uses
Numerous and diverse domestic uses (DOM) of plants emerged from this work.Fifty-seven taxa were cited for this UC (15.2% of total taxa representing the 7% of the total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A).The three most cited plants were Lavandula angustifolia (50 cit.), Syzygium aromaticum (10 cit.), Sambucus nigra (8 cit.).The subcategories of DOM were as follows (Fig. 5B): (1) Fuel (included plants used to light wood ovens, fireplaces and stoves, and plants used to obtain oil for lamps), (2) Ornamental, (3) Dye for fabric, (4) Perfume (for wardrobe, linen closets, and clothes, as well as for general perfumes to freshen the house and overcome bad smells), ( 5) Ties, (6) Ink, (7) Other domestic.The latter included abrasive plants used to clean glass, bottles, and flasks, plants used as laundry detergent, to wash wool, as stain-remover for clothes, to shine wood furniture, to cool wine bottles, for wool carding.Curiously, this DOM subcategory included the use of Arctium minus as "toilet paper, " of Triticum aestivum to make paper, of Verbascum thapsus to obtain wicks for oil lamps, and Hordeum vulgare that was treated to obtain a yellow paper, used for wrapping food.All the plants cited in the DOM subcategories are reported in Additional file 1: Table S2.
Thirty-two taxa (8.5% of total taxa representing the 4% of the pie chart shown in Fig. 3A) were reported for their craft uses (CRAFT).The three most cited taxa in this UC were Quercus spp.(9 cit.), Salix alba (8 cit.), and Castanea sativa (7 cit.).CRAFT included five trees cited as their wood was used to make musical instruments, plants used to make pipes, and for crafting various tools, to make furniture, scaffoldings, and various constructions and to obtain fiber for fabrics.All the plants cited in CRAFT are reported in Additional file 1: Table S3.

Superstitious-magical-religious use (SMR)
Striving to preserve the traditional knowledge in its entirety, the study also inquired and reported that plant uses linked to superstitions, magic, and religions (SMR).This UC included 52 plants (13.9% of total taxa representing the 6% of the total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A), and all the information acquired for the plants is detailed in Table 2.The most cited species were Aesculus hippocastanum (26 cit.), Stachys recta (24 cit.), and Allium sativum (23 cit.).Except for Acer campestre, Sanguinaria canadensis, and Trifolium repens, all the other taxa listed in SMR were cited also in other UC.
The SMR subcategories (Fig. 5C) were: (1) Apotropaic (able to drive away "evil eye" and evil entities or influences), ( 2) Propitiatory (able to bring good luck and fortune in life, journeys, agriculture, gambling.and economy), (3) Weather prediction (through divination), (4) Bringing peace and good mood (including also the ability to "purify" places), ( 5) Healer (able to heal a disease in a superstitious or ritualistic way), ( 6) Protective (from a specific disease), (7) Other SMR.The latter subcategory included plants used to predict a future marriage, find aquifers, to celebrate pagan marriage, to ward off hail, lightning and thunderbolts, to make desires come true, to make someone fall in love, to make a person more handsome, to prolong life, and to promote premonitory dreams.In this latter subcategory were also inserted plants cited for some dreadful uses, namely Sambucus nigra and Linaria vulgaris.Interestingly, five plants were harvested during the night before the 24th of June (night of Saint John) to be effective: Hypericum perforatum, Juglans regia, Lavandula angustifolia, Pteridium aquilinum, and Stachys recta.Additional file 1: Table S2 reports all the plants used for each SMR subcategory.

Agropastoral (AGROPA) and veterinary (VET) uses
In the Agropastoral category (AGROPA) 43 taxa were cited (5% of total taxa representing the 5% of total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A), with the most cited ones being Quercus spp.(20 cit.), Urtica dioica (17 cit.), Robinia pseudoacacia (12 cit.), and Medicago sativa (12 cit.).AGROPA included three subcategories (Fig. 5D): (1) Feed, (2) Horticulture (including anti-weed, soil fertilizer and enricher, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal, and weeds), and (3) Other Agropastoral, including plants used to make animal bedding and to attract bees.(Additional file 1: Table S2 lists the plants used in the AGROPA subcategories.)Some plants of the subcategory Feed were considered not only nutritive but also able to improve the quality of products derived from the animals.

Repellent-insecticide use (REP), toxic, games, and other uses and information (OUI)
In the repellent-insecticide category (REP), twenty-eight taxa were listed (7.5% of total taxa representing the 3% of the pie chart shown in Fig. 3A), and the most cited species were Lavandula angustifolia (33 cit.), Urtica dioica (17 cit.), and Syzygium aromaticum (12 cit.).Some plants were considered repellent for insects or parasites in general, some were specified to have repellent action against mosquitos, aphids, moths, lice, flies, gadflies, and fleas.Some other plants were considered repellent for animals such as scorpions, moles, spiders, vipers and mice or insecticidal, and pesticidal.Ten toxic plants were listed in TOXIC and (for easy access, see Additional file 1: Table S3).Eight taxa were cited by the interviews for their uses in games that were generally played by kids (see Arctium lappa, Primula spp., Primula veris, and Crategus monogyna).Nineteen taxa were listed in "Other Uses and Information" (OUI).This UC included uses related to times of shortage and war, for instance, plants used as tobacco-substitutes and other uncommon uses (see Table 2 and the list in Additional file 1: Table S3).

Phytonyms
The plant names (phytonyms) were given by the interviewees in Italian or, more often, in the dialect of Bologna (Table 2).Some of these dialectal phytonyms were of particular interest and could be divided into six groups: phytonyms derived from plant (1) medicinal use, (2) food use, (3) connection to rituals, myths, or saints, (4) practical uses (5) growth environment or morphological traits, and (6) smell.Examples of the plant of the first group are Aethusa cynapium L. named "Erba dla vòs" (herb of the voice) referring to the popular use of the dried leaves in infusion to treat hoarseness, Angelica sylvestris L. named "Erba di cavei" (herb of hair), deriving from the tradition of using the boiled flowers to treat baldness, Centaurium erythraea Rafn.named "Êrba da la f îvra" (fever herb) and used to lower fever, Chelidonium majus L. named "Êrba di pôr" (leek herb) since the caustic juice was applied on warts and leeks, Delphinium staphisagria L. named "Êrba pr i bdûc'" (lice herb) widely used as a popular anti-lice, Echium vulgare L. named "Erba viperina" (viper grass) since the decoction of the roots was believed to be an antidote against snake venom, Euphrasia officinalis L. named "Èrba pr'i och" (herb for the eyes) from its use to treat eye conditions, Hepatica nobilis Schreb named "Erba di Bogn" (pimple herb) from the use of the leaf juice to treat pimples, Hylotelephium maximum L. Holub named "Erba della Madonna" (Holy Virgin's herb) referring to the excellent healing properties of its leaves which act like "a miracle of the Holy Virgin" for the wounds, Polygala vulgaris L. named "Erba da la tass" (cough herb) from the popular use of its decoction against coughs and bronchitis, Taraxacum spp.named "Pessalet" (bedwetter) referring to the strong diuretic properties attributed to this plant.
In the second group are found plants such as Aesculus hippocastanum L. named "Castagna mata" (mad chestnut), since the seeds look like chestnuts but are not good for eating, Anacamptis morio named "Fior ch' as surcen" (flowers that are sucked) from the popular tradition of sucking the flowers for their sweet flavor, Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn., B.Mey. and Scherb named "Cren" (camouflage), for the acrid and spicy root popularly used for its acidic flavor capable of covering the unpleasant tastes that the meat takes on due to poor preservation, Clematis vitalba L. called "Asparago dei poveri" (poor man's asparagus) because its young shoots can be consumed like asparagus, hence they were harvested in spring by poor people.Crepis sancta L. Babc.named "Ciocapiat" literally hitter-of-pots, a dialect name used to indicate sellers of dishes who boast of their robustness by banging them against each other; this term was also used to indicate a charlatan and here comes the association with the Crepis sancta that has a taste similar to chicory but it is a wild plant and a less valuable food.Galium sylvaticum L. named "Caglio di bosco" (forest rennet) for it was used by shepherds for milk curdling, Lathyrus oleraceus Lam., named "Mangiatutto" (eat-all) so called because every part of these plants is eaten, even the pod, Polypodium vulgare L. named "Faelza dulza" (sweet fern) or "Falsa liquirizia" (fake licorice) from the sweetish flavor of the rhizome, similar to that of licorice.
Examples of the plants of the third group were Linaria vulgaris subsp.vulgaris named "Êrba däl stréjj" (witches' herb), since in popular tradition the plant was used by wizards and witches performing evil spells, Stachys recta L. named "Êrba d'la pôra" (herb of fear), since it was used in several rituals to heal traumas and fear, and it was popularly believed that children's fears could be washed away by adding its decoction to bath water.Barbarea vulgaris named "Barbarea, " "Barbarella, " or "Erba di Santa Barbara" (St.Barbara herb), so called because the leaves were eaten on December 4, the day on which Santa Barbara is celebrated, or Hypericum perforatum L. called "Erba 'd San Zvàn" (St.Joan Herb) since it is traditionally harvested the night of St. Joan.Lilium candidum L. named "Giglio di Sant' Antonio" (lily of St. Anthony), since the pure white lily represents the penitents following St. Anthony in the path toward God through the renunciation of material pleasures to exalt the spiritual ones.Veronica officinalis L. called "Occhi della Madonna" (Holy Virgin's eyes) from the particular light blue color of the little flowers associated with the eyes of the Holy Virgin.
The fourth group is related to phytonyms referring to practical uses, and includes Cytisus scoparius subsp.scoparius called "Ginestra dei Carbonai" (broom of the charcoal burners) from the popular tradition according to which the charcoal burners used the branches of this plant to build the roofs of the huts where they worked in the summer, Dipsacus fullonum L. named "Cardo dei lanaioli" (wool workers' thistle) since the thorny infructescences of the plant were used by weavers to card woolen fabrics, Helleborus foetidus L. named "Cavadenti" (teeth-remover) since the rhizome, positioned between the tooth and the gum, was used for the extraction of the teeth.Ilex aquifolium L. and Ruscus aculeatus L. in addition to other different local names were also both called "Ponztop" (literally biting-mouse) referring to the fact that for their sharp leaves, they were placed around the supplies to keep mice away.Sorbus aucuparia L. was called "Sorbo degli uccellatori" (rowan's fowler) for the birds that were nesting on this plant to feed on its red berries and so they were captured.Parietaria officinalis L. called "Erba vetriola" (sandpaper-herb) for the frequent use of its leaves to clean glass, demijohns and bottles, thanks to the fuzz that covers the entire plant which makes it almost similar to sandpaper.
The phytonyms of the fifth group were related to specific features of the plant, such as Cornus sanguinea L. called "Sanguinella" (bloody) from the red color of the bark of the winter branches.Dactylis glomerata L. "Erba mazzolina" (Bouquet grass) for the flowers are gathered in dense and flat spikelet, forming "bunches" separated from each other.Delphinium consolida subsp.Consolida called "Speronella" (spur-like) due to the spur shape of its light blue flower, Equisetum arvense L. called "Erba cavallina" (horse grass) or "Coda cavallina" (horsetail) from the shape of the adult plant which resembles a horse's tail.Euonymus europaeus L. named "Berretta del prete" (priest's hat) from the shape of the fruits which recall the segmented cap with central pompom once used by Catholic priests.Euphorbia cyparissias L. named "Erba Latarola" (latex-producing herb) from the acrid and poisonous whitish latex produced by the plant, Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don named "Perpetuino" (perpetual) referring to the inflorescences which continue to maintain their appearance and color even when withered.Laburnum anagyroidis Medik.named "Maggiociondolo" (May-pendant) alluding to the flowers in pendant clusters that bloom in May.Lonicera caprifolium L. named "Ligabòsc" (literally who-ties-the woods) since it is a climbing plant, while Glechoma hederacea is named "Laͤ ddra terraestra" (ground ivy) for its climbing habit on the ground.Ranunculus arvensis L. named "Piè gallo" (rooster's foot) for its leaves, which resemble the feet and combs of a rooster.Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, named "Sciopetin" or "Ciuchaͤ tt" (crackling) for its flower that "pops" if held between the fingers.Tragopogon pratensis L. named "Barba di becco" (goat's beard) that seems to come from the Lombardic language "bikk" meaning goat, or called "Barba d'frè" (monk's beard) since the infructescence (made of achenes with pappus) resembles a bearded face.Other phytonyms in this group are related to plant growth conditions or environment, such as Asplenium ceterach L. named "Erba rugine" (rust grass) for the reddish spores arranged on the underside of the leaf, or also called "Spaccapietre" (stonebreaker) because it grows tenaciously on rocks and walls, slowly penetrating the stones, similar name for the same reasons was given also to Celtis australis L. named "Spaccasassi" (stonebreaker).Globularia bisnagarica L. called "Morina" (young widow) because, between March and May, it blooms in dry meadows and pastures alone, surrounded by no other flowers.Lamium amplexicaule L. named "Erba ruota" (wheel grass) because the plant is easily found near paths and roads and therefore in contact with the wheels of cars.Centaurea cyanus L. named "Garufanin blô de grén" (blue carnation of the wheat) for it grows in the crop fields, sprinkling them with blue spots.Medicago sativa L. is called "Erba Spagna" (Spanish grass) because during the Middle Ages its cultivation in Europe was almost abandoned, so much so that in Italy it remained unknown until 1500, when it was reintroduced with seeds imported from Spain it had been spread again by the Arabs.The last group of phytonyms come from the plant smell and include plants like Alliaria petiolata, named "Aj herb" (garlic herb) from its persistent garlic smell, Aloysia citradora called "Erba zidreina" (citrine grass) from the citrus smell given by the leaves when rubbed, Galium odoratum Scop.Called "Stellina odorosa" (fragrant little star) from the shape of the flowers resembling a star and the scent they produce when dried, Helleborus foetidus L. named "Erba zitona" (gypsy grass) with a derogatory connotation, comparing the bad smell of the plant to that of the gypsies, and its toxicity to the fact that one should be careful with this plant as when meeting a gypsy.

Conclusions
This study demonstrates the extensive knowledge and use of plants in Bologna district, with some differences in the taxa of interest depending on the geographic area where the interviews were conducted (mountain, hill, and plain).The conspicuous number of informants interviewed has led to a wide spectrum of information about a high number of taxa.The majority of the taxa had multiple use categories, multiple organs of interest, and different methods of preparation and administration.
As expected, medicinal use was the most frequently cited category, followed by food uses.However, this study also revealed numerous other fascinating uses of plants, including rituals and superstitious beliefs.
The comprehensive insights gathered through this research are important for the appreciation and preservation of the knowledge and cultural heritage of the local communities.Additionally, this study has the potential to inspire further research in various domains of plant science, uncovering alternative possibilities for the sustainable utilization of plant resources.
Overall, this work not only contributes to the understanding of traditional plant knowledge but also highlights the significance of conserving and transmitting these age-old practices and beliefs for future generations.
Fruits are macerated in oil to make wraps against hemorrhoids (1H) COSM: Leaf infusion is a remedy for sweaty feet (2H) DOM: Dried leaves are burnt to overtake bad smell (4H), and to perfume the house (1H) REP: Begs filled with leaves keep moths away from drawers (1H).Dried leaves are used to keep moths and small insects away from armchair (1H) and from flour of wheat and barley (1H) FOOD: Leaves (1H) and flowers (1H) are used to flavor several dishes MED: The essential oil has relaxing and calming action (1P), 4-5 drops are used in fumigation to relieve flu (1 M).Flowers are used for fumigation (placed in boiling water) balsamic for the first respiratory tract (2H).Flower alcoholate is used for messages to relieve headache (1H).Flower alcohol macerate has disinfectant properties for the skin (1H).Flower infusion and essential oil calm pain (7H), and is anti-lice (5H).Flower infusion relaxes muscles (2H), is used to treat migraine (1 M) is sedative (2H, 2 M) and diuretic (1 M), it is used to make decongestant fumigation (3 M).It can be used topically or drunk to purify the skin, especially in case of acne (1H).Topically, flower infusion is used to promote scar healing (2 M), to make massages that relax muscles (1 M), and bandages for burns (1 M).Lavender infusion together with lemon peel and couch grass is useful in case of arthritis (3H).Lavender infusion together with violet, sage and chamomile is a remedy for arthritis (1H).Top flowering decoction treats cold (1 M).Some drops of essential oil on the pillow conciliate sleep (1 M) COSM: Leaf macerated with juniper, rosemary, thyme and sage is used on fatty skin (2H).Flowers are used to make perfumed and relaxing baths (1H).Flower infusion is used to make footbaths (1 M).Flower essential oil hydrates the skin (4P) and the scalp (3P).Flower macerate is used as perfume (1H) called "Acqua di lavanda" VET: In case a dog is bitten by a viper, flowers are rubbed on the bite (1H) REP: Bags filled with flowers are placed in the wardrobe to keep away insects such as moths (2P, 20H, 1 M).A sprig is kept in the closet as a pest repellent for clothes (2 M).Aerial parts are rubbed on the skin to keep insects away (1P, 5H).Some drops of essential oil in the house keep scorpions away (1H).Flower alcohol macerate applied on animal skin repels insects (1H) DOM: Bags filled with flowers are used to perfume linen (10P, 28H, 4 M) and are used to make scented soaps (1 M).Essential oil is used also to perfume the house (2P) and in scented diffusers (1 M).The plant is ornamental (3 M).Often the flowers are placed in jars to perfume and refresh the room (1 M) SMR: The flowers are harvested on the night of S. Johan (23th of June) and placed in small bags under the pillow to induce premonitory dreams (1 M).Bunches of lavender are kept in the house to bring calm, thanks to the color and scent (2 M) AGROPA: The whole plant attracts bees which make honey (4H) OUI: The essential oil is used for relaxing massages (1 M).Lavender bath wash is made to cure kid weakness (1H) Dried flower infusion relieves abdominal muscle spasms (1 M), fatigue, and exhaustion (1 M).Flower cream relieves abdominal pain (1 M) SMR: A pillow filled with lavender flowers helps to calm headache (1P) DOM: A bunch of flowers is used to perfume the linen (3P) REP: A bunch of flowers keep insects away (1P, 2 M) Leopoldia comosa (L.) Parl.BOLO0046847 Lampascioni Cipollaccio col fiocco Purraͤ tt Wild-native FOOD: Bulb is used in cookery (1H), it is eaten in salad for its diuretic activity (1H, 1 M) MED: Bulb juice is rubbed on insect bites to soothe the itch (1 M)

Fig. 3 A
Fig. 3 A Histogram: number of taxa cited for a specific use category (UC).Pie chart: Percentage of UC, calculated on the basis of the total number of taxa in each UC.B Most cited (more than 100 total citations) families C Most cited taxa, considering all the UC

Fig. 4 A
Fig. 4 A MED subcategories for number of cited taxa, B FOOD subcategories for number of cited taxa, C plant parts used in MED, D plant parts used in FOOD

Table 2
(continued)Whole plant is used to cook several dishes (1P, 2H).Soup of leek is useful against arthritis (2H) and gout (2H) MED: The dens mixture obtained by boiling the leek is helpful in the case of wrynecks (1H)

Table 2
(continued) MED: A compression wrap containing shredded flowers is used as a wound healer (1 M).Flower and leaf decoction, filtered for about 20 min, is used in compress for wound healing, burning, and abrasions (1 M) AGROPA: The plant is used as feed for cattle(1 M) Antirrhinum majus L. BOLO0003333 Bocca di leone Båcca ed låuv Wild-native MED: Flower decoction is used in compress on burns (1 M) and on skin redness (1 M) SMR: It was believed that anointing with seed oil makes a person more handsome (1 M) REP: To place a spring of this tree in the room corners to keeps scorpions away (2 M) Apium graveolens L. BOLO0049014 Sedano Saerrel Saerrel Wild-native FOOD: Leaves (1H) and stems (7H) are used in cookery.Raw celery is eaten to reduce stomach swelling (3H) MED: Leaf infusion in footbath cures chilblains (2H).Infusion of roots of celery, fennel, parsley and butcher's broom reduces the intestinal gases (6H).Fruit infusion is used to relieve stomach and intestinal inflammation (1H) VET: A mixture of leaves infusion together with lard is used in cataplasm to treat cow's mastitis (1H) Aquilegia spp.-Aquilegia Wild-native MED: Flower infusion is used per os as astringent (3 M), sedative (1 M), and topically as antiinflammatory (1 M) Arbutus unedo L. BOLO0055377 Corbezzolo Curbaezzel Wild-native FOOD: Fruits purify the liver (1P).Unripe fruits are eaten raw as diuretic (1 M), while ripe fruits with orange are used to prepare a jam (1 M) FOOD: Leaves are used in cookery (1H).Roots are used to prepare a liquor (1H).Roots are boiled and eaten for their detoxifying properties (2H) MED: Leaves are smoked to purify the lungs (2H).Minced leaves have anti-inflammatory action on skin (1P), and they are used on wasp bites (1P).Fresh leaves are applied on inflamed skin (1 M).Cataplasm of leaves in milk has cicatrizing properties (1H).Leaf and flower macerated in oil (oleolite) is used for skin affection (2H).The decoction of roots (3H) or the infusion of leaves (2P) are used as purifying and diuretic agents.Root decoction (a spun per day) is drunk against acne (2H) and rubella (1H).Root decoction in compress treats pimples (3H) and acne (2 M).Root oleolite is useful against acne (1 M).Root pulp is used as detergent in case of skin diseases (3H).Root syrup per os (two-three spoons per day) treats eczema (1H).Seed infusion is laxative (1H), and seed and leaf decoction is used to rinse the mouth in case of infections (2 M) COSM: Compress of boiled leaves is used for skin rejuvenating (2 M).The leaves together with nettle leaves and oil are rubbed on the scalp against dandruff (1 M).Root pulp is used to prevent hair loss (3H) AGROPA: Leaves are used in vegetable gardens to protect shoots and to prevent weed growth (3H).Leaves, due to their wide dimension, are used to cover shoots in vegetable gardens protecting them from high intensity sun light GAME: kids used to play at war by throwing prickly flowers, which stick on the clothes (8H) MED: Leaves are used to prepare a digestive infusion (1P) Artemisia dracunculus L. BOLO0012772 Dragoncello Cultivated FOOD: Leaves are an ingredient of several dishes, used because they are digestive (1H).Leaves are crushed to flavor rennet (3H).Fruits are used to prevent the formation of mold in foods (1H) MED: Root decoction is used against sore throat (3H) OUI: In times of poverty, a high amount of leaves was chewed to remove the sensibility of taste buds, enabling to eat also the bad taste food (2H)

Table 2
(continued) During spring, holes are made in the trunk (in the part of the tree facing at south) to extract the sap, which is sprinkled on the legs to drain and to prevent cellulitis(2 M) MED: Leaf infusion is febrifuge (1 M).Frond decoction is useful against bronchitis (1 M), as expectorant and antitussive (1 M) Atropa belladonna L. BOLO0029263 Atropa Belladonna Baeladôna Wild-native MED: Root and leaf decoction calms stomachache (3H).Leaf and flower infusion is drunk in low dosages as a calming agent and sleep inducer (1 M) OUI:The name "belladonna", which means "beautiful woman", derives from the dilating effect on pupils given by this plant; since this feature was considered glamorous in women, the fruits were eaten in small dosages to obtain this effect (1 M) TOXIC: Fruits are poisonous (2H) Cultivated FOOD: Fruits are used to prepare bread (2H, 1 M) and to obtain liquor (2H) MED: Fruit decoction has restorative (1H), laxative (1H), and calming properties (2H).Leaf infusion is used to wash the oral cavity in case of sore throat (1H).Leaf decoction in combination with basil leaves is used for tonsillitis (1 M) GAME: Kids throw the spikes of oats at each other for they stick to their clothes (4H).Flowers are used to make whistles (1H) MED: Decoction of the whole plant is a remedy for ringing in the ears (1 M) FOOD: Leaves eaten in salads cure the gouty foot (1 M) MED: Shredded fresh leaves in cataplasms are used to treat knee scarring (1 M).Crushed seeds mixed with wine are used as diuretic (1 M) FOOD: Leaves are eaten in salad (2P), buds and petals are used as spices (1 M).Flower infusion is a restorative summer drink (1 M) MED: Flower infusion purifies the blood (2 M), prevents hepatic conditions (2 M), is diuretic (3 M), and is used externally to treat dermatological conditions (1 M), rheumatisms (1 M), and to heal wounds (1P) Beta vulgaris L. BOLO0055355 Bietola Barbabiáttla Cultivated MED: Boiled leaves are eaten (3H) for their purifying action on the liver (3P).Boiled leaves and stems are laxative and emollient for the intestine (3H) AGROPA: Leaves are used to enhance milk production in cows (1P) Betula pendula Roth BOLO0017008 Betulla Bdòll Wild-native MED: Dried leaves are boiled in water for few minutes and filtered; the infusion obtained is diuretic (3 M), depurative (3 M), useful for kidney stones (1H, 1 M), arthritis (1 M), cystitis (1 M), and to heal inflammatory conditions (1 M).Fresh leaf (harvested in spring) infusion is diuretic (1 M) COSM: The cooled water of leaf infusion is used in compress against cellulitis (2 M).MED: Leaf infusion lowers temperature (in case of fever) by increasing sweating (5H), it is also diuretic (2H).Leaf and flower oleolite is used for skin redness and skin itching (1H).Flower infusion is diuretic (3H) and purifies the liver (3H), it is used as antitussive (1H) and anticatarrhal (1H) COSM: Leaves and flowers oleolite (in olive oil) is used for dry skin (1H) Brassica napus L. BOLO0008752 Rapa Wild-alien FOOD: Roots eaten in salad have digestive properties (2H) MED: Root syrup is expectorant (2H)

Table 2
(continued)The external leaves are placed between two worm patches and applied on the body part affected by rheumatism (1 M).Cooking water is optimal for heartburn (1 M).Leaf pulp heals wounds, promoting the expulsion of foreign matters (1H).
Boiled leaf wraps are wound healers (2H).Boiled leaves bandages are applied on sore bones (3H).Fresh leaves are applied on reddish and inflamed skin as lenitive (4H) COSM: Leaf boiling water is used to make refreshing footbaths (1H) Cavolo cappuccio Cultivated MED: In case of cough and cold, leaves are boiled and applied between two towels over the sternum for their expectorant activity (1 M).Fresh leaves are applied on reddish and inflamed skin as lenitive (1 M) MED: Leaf infusion is laxative (2H), it lowers the body temperature in case of fever, by increasing sweating (3H) SMR: It is propitiatory and apotropaic, and for this reason, during Easter a sprig is kept in the pocket (1 M) Cultivated FOOD: Omelets of fresh flowers are prepared (1 M, 1H) MED: Fresh leaves are rubbed on warts (1 M).Leaf and flower infusion calms stomach pain (4H).Leaves and flowers are used on skin in cataplasm for their healing and soothing properties (6H), while flower cataplasm relieves insect bites (1 M).Flower infusion is used to heal intestinal conditions (3H), as anti-inflammatory (1 M), anti-spasmodic (2 M) and anti-emetic (1H), it is a pain reliever and it is used to calm menstrual pain (3H).Cooled flower infusion is used in compress on irritated eyes (2 M, 1H).Flower decoction is used as an anti-emetic (1H), flower infusion in compress cures sores, cracks (1H, 1 M), and skin irritations (2H, 1 M), flower infusion or decoction in compress is soothing and emollient for reddened of skin and mucous membranes and it is useful for wound healing (1H, 1 M).Flowers oleolite is used on burns (8H), on inflamed skin (3H), and for belly massages to calm menstrual pain (1 M).Mixing vaseline and calendula flowers is prepared a skin crème, which is soothing on insect bites, useful for skin redness and burns for its wound healing properties (4H).Hydroalcoholic extract of flowers is used in drops as antibiotic (1 M) SMR: Looking at calendula flowers is

Table 2
(continued)Artichoke is used in cookery (9H), fresh flowers are stored in oil (2H).Cooked flowers are depurative (1H), protective for the liver (1H), laxative (1 M), prevent liver diseases (1 M), and lower fever (1H).Leaves are used to prepare a digestive liquor (2H).Young leaves cooked and seasoned with oil are depurative (1 M) and detoxifying for liver (2H).Leaves are eaten to promote liver and pancreas secretions (4H).The fresh pith of the stem (called "costa") with lemon juice is eaten in salad (1 M), it is protective for liver (1H) and promotes liver functions (1H); boiled in water it has liver depurative activity (3H), purifies the body (3H) and protects the liver (3H).Seed infusion keeps the liver healthy (1P) FOOD: Fruits are used in cookery (2H) MED: Fruit macerated in water is useful against spasmodic cough (1H) and venous stasis (2H).The oleolite of fruits relaxes back muscles (2H), and is useful in case of sciatica (1H) SMR: The dead are buried next to the cypress to ensure "peaceful rest" (1H) MED: Boiled leaves promote digestion (1H) and are useful against headache (2H).The decoction of fresh leaves lowers cholesterol (1H, 1 M).The decoction of roots and leaves has diuretic properties (6H).The inner part of the stem has diuretic proprieties (4P).Leaf infusion purifies the liver(2H) DOM: The boiling water is useful to dye fabrics (1H) Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.BOLO0049209 Gramigna Gramaggna Wild-native FOOD: In time of war, it was made a flour out of the rhizome (1H) MED: Whole plant infusion or decoction has diuretic properties (11H).Whole plant infusion with lavender and a lemon slice is useful against arthritis (3H).Rhizome decoction cures stomachache (3H), and it is used as douching for genitals to refresh from burning sensation (6H).Leaf decoction together with sage, rosemary, and lemon is useful against gastritis (1H).Leaf syrup is antitussive (1H) AGROPA: The rhizome is used as feed for pigs (1P, 3H) Cytisus scoparius subsp.scoparius BOLO0047328 Ginestra dei carbonai Scornabec Wild-native MED: limbs are immersed in whole plant infusion to treat rheumatisms (1 M).Compress of flower buds is used to treat abscesses (1 M) DOM: Branches are used as ties (1H, 1 M) Cytisus spp.-Ginestra Wild-native MED: Infusion of flowers, harvested in spring-summer, drunk two or three times a day, is diuretic (2 M), sedative (1 M), laxative (1 M), and prevents heart conditions (1 M).Dry flower decoction is used in case of cough (1 M) and asthma (1 M) Dactylis glomerata L. BOLO0003292 Erba mazzolina Erba mazzuleina Wild-native FOOD: Aerial parts are eaten in salad (2H) AGROPA: Aerial parts are used to feed livestock (3H) FOOD: Roots are edible (5H) MED: Roots fresh or boiled stop diarrhea (9H), and improve and preserve the sight (5H), The green organs of the carrot, kept in the mouth, reduce mouth ulcers in kids (2H).Flower compress heals burns (1 M).Decoction of flowering tops in compress calms itch and pain of insect bites (1 M).Cataplasm of flower and leaves is applied on pimples (1 M) COSM: Roots (fresh or boiled) promote suntan and skin regeneration (1H) VET: Livestock are fed with carrots in case of cough (2H) Delphinium consolida (L.) BOLO0602028 Speronella Erba de grên Wild-native MED: The decoction of the plant has its anti-lice activity (1 M) Delphinium staphisagria L. BOLO0045268 Stafisagria Êrba pr i bdûc' Wild-native MED: Seed infusion is used against lice and scabies (4H) TOXIC: Seed infusion is poisonous if drunk (2H) Diospyros kaki L.f.BOLO0011460 Caco Kako Cachi Cultivated MED: Leaf infusion relieves sore throat (1H).Unripe fruits are astringent (1H) COSM: Fruit pulp is applied on the skin to make it smoother and softer (2H) MED: Root decoction is a remedy against intestinal parasites (1 M) SMR: The pillow filled with leaves relieves legs and feet pain (1 M) MED: Root decoction is an antidot against snake bites (1 M).Leaf juice is placed directly on the viper bites (3 M) SMR: Drinking the decoction of the root not only is an antidot against snake bites, but it also able to prevent this from happening (1 M)

Table 2
(continued) FOOD: Root decoction is purifying (2P, 2H), and refreshing for the intestine (2H).Whole plant is purifying (1H) MED: The whole plant, rubbed on the skin, quenches the itching due to nettle sting (1P).Whole plant infusion is diuretic (2H), and for this reason, is a remedy for urinary tract infections (1H).Root boiling water is anti-anemic (1 M).Root decoction is diuretic (1P, 4H), and laxative (1P), it is a remedy for intestinal and bladder inflammation (1H) AGROPA: It is a fodder plant (1H) FOOD: Shoots are used in cookery (2H) since they are rich in mineral salts (4H).Fertile branch is cooked like asparagus fruits (1H).Dry leaf infusion is diuretic, detoxifying (2 M), and excellent remineralizing (1 M).Whole plant infusion is purifying (1H), it is diuretic and remineralizing (2H).Whole plant decoction is remineralizing (2H) MED: Stem decoction is a remedy against flu (1P).The stems are used to dab hemorrhage due to wounds (2P).Shoot infusion is diuretic (7H), it is used for burning sensation of intimate areas (2H), and it cures canker sores in children (1 M).Whole plant decoction is diuretic (1H) and digestive (1H).Branch decoction is diuretic and is used against cystitis (4 M).Leaf decoction cures kidney stones (1 M).Leaf infusion, drunk before meals, relieves arthritis pain (1 M), and is a remedy for osteoporosis (1 M).An anti-rheumatic ointment is made with grounded and boiled leaf and stem (3 M) DOM: Dried aerial parts are used to sand the wood and to polish the pots (1P) AGROPA: It is a pest plant of vegetable gardens (1 M).Whole plant is cultivated next to tomato because it protects it from diseases (1H) REP: Boiled leaves together with nettle leaves are an excellent pesticide (1 M) FOOD: Whole plant is rich in mineral salts (1 M).Branch infusion is purifying (1H) MED: Aerial part infusion strengthens kid bones and reduces the incidence of bone fractures (2H).Leaf juice is drunk in wine to stop diarrhea (1H).Cotton soaked in leaf juice is inserted in the nose to stop bleeding (1H).Fronds are chopped and the poultice is placed on bleeding wounds to stop hemorrhage and to promote healing (1H).Branch infusion is diuretic (2H, 2 M), and purifying (1H).Decoction of sterile stems is a good diuretic (1H) and antitussive (2H) COSM: Aerial part infusion strengthens the hair and helps to manage alopecia (2H) Erigeron canadensis L. BOLO0052437 Erigero Saepla Wild-native FOOD: Leaves and stems are placed, together with other plants, in a container done with the bladder of ruminants (called "pitarola"), for the preparation of a cream used as rennet (1 M) FOOD: Leaves are eaten in salad (7P, 13H, 2 M) or used to flavor dishes (3H).Leaves stimulate appetite (1 M) MED: Aerial part decoction promotes sleep (1P).Leaves sedate cough (1H), aid digestion (1H,2 M), and strengthen memory (1H,1 M) Euonymus europaeus L. BOLO0003052 Berretta da prete Caurôs Wild-native MED: Fruit macerate is antiparasitic (1H) CRAFT: Branches are used to make brooms and toothpicks (1H) MED: Root decoction is a remedy for constipation (1 M).Fresh leaves are wound and sore healer (1 M) MED: The latex contained in the stem is a remedy for warts and leeks (2 M, 1H) Euphorbia helioscopia subsp.MED: Leaf infusion lowers temperature (2H).Root decoction or seed oil is used to expel intestinal parasites (2H).The latex of the stem removes warts and calluses (2H, 1 M) TOXIC: The latex from the stem is very poisonous if eaten (1H) Euphorbia lathyris L. BOLO0052732 Euforbia Wild-alien REP: It is cultivated to keep moles away since it produces toxic latex (2H) Euphorbia spp.Euforbia Wild-native AGROPA: Rabbits are fed with the whole plant (1H), DOM: Leaf cooking water is used to color eggs of green (1H) MED: Whole plant infusion is used to wash redden eyes and in case of conjunctivitis (2H)

Table 2
(continued)Fruits are left in sugar and then boiled with water to obtain "fichi sciroppati", the resulting syrup is used as cough sedative (1 M).The white latex from leaves and fruits is used to remove calluses and warts (5P, 28H, 10 M).It is applied on pimples (1H) and on insect bites (2 M), and is wound healer (1 M) DOM: Leaves are abrasive and are used in cleaning (1P) FOOD: Figs are prepared in jam (3H), that is laxative (2H, 5 M).Figs are eaten fresh (2 M, 1H) or dried since they are laxative (19H) and rich in mineral (10H).They are used to prepare a traditional Christmas cake, made with apple mustard, pine nuts, and dried grapes (1 M) MED: Dried figs are eaten to treat sore throat (1H).Fresh or dried fruit cures catarrh (4H).Fresh fruits are a remedy for colitis and vomiting (1H).Fruit decoction in milk is useful against colds and cough (1H).Fruit juice is applied on calluses (1 M) and warts (1 M).A liquor is obtained with fruits, yeast, sugar, and water and after maceration it is used as laxative (1 M), antitussive (1 M), for sore throat (1 M) and intestinal pain (1 M).MED: Aerial part infusion cures gout (1H), and prevents flu (1H) COSM: A cream made with aerial part is a remedy against cellulitis (1H) FOOD: Aerial part is edible (1P, 5H).Fennel is used to prepare biscuits (2H).Fruits and stems are eaten in salad (3H).Leaves are eaten in salad or used to aromatize dishes (1H).Seeds are used to prepare aromatized "salami" (1 M) and "zucarén" (traditional biscuits prepared for marriages) (6H).Seed macerate in wine stops hiccup (1H).Aerial part macerate is used to prepare a digestive "grappa" (1H).Fruits are eaten to promote digestion (6H) and to reduce vomiting during pregnancy (2H).Stems with young buds are used to prepare a digestive and sweet brandy (1H) MED: Whole plant infusion is digestive (11H).Seed decoction in wraps is a remedy for conjunctivitis (3H).Seed infusion is digestive (1H), deflating (1H) and together to licorice roots is galactagogue (3H).Fruit infusion is used in wraps on inflamed eyes (1H), it is digestive (2 M) and deflating (1 M), and it is a remedy for gastro-intestinal issues (1 M).Fruit decoction is galactagogue (1H).Infusion of fennel, anise, and parley fights stomach acidity (3H).Leaves are used to wrap abscesses (1H).Leaf infusion (2P) and decoction (2P) are digestive.Root infusion reduces intestinal gases (1H).Root syrup made with parsley, celery, and butcher's broom reduces intestinal gases (6H) Fragaria vesca L. BOO0055389 Fragoline di bosco Froevla Frèvla Wild-native FOOD: Fruits are used in cookery (4H), to prepare jams (1H) MED: Whole plant macerate stops diarrhea (2H).Rhizome decoction is used to wash the oral cavity in case of sore throat (1H).Leaf juice is used to remove red dots on the skin (1H).Dried leaf infusion is purifying (1 M).Root decoction and raw fruits have purifying properties (1H) COSM: Fruit juice mixed with milk and yogurt tones the skin (1H) FOOD: Fruits are used in cookery to prepare sweets and cakes, jams, and syrups (5H).Fresh fruits topped with red wine or lemon and sugar are eaten since they are rich in nutrients (3 M), help in case of flu (1 M), lower blood pressure (2 M), and have anti-inflammatory properties (1 M) MED: Leaves are boiled and drunk in case of diarrhea (2H).Leaf infusion is diuretic (2 M), astringent (1 M) and it lowers blood pressure (2 M).Root decoction cures sore throat (2H).Slices of fruit applied on the face cure acne (1 M) COSM: Slices of fruit are tonic for the face (1 M) MED: Bark infusion (with leaves from plum tree and dog rose) is useful against constipation (3H) Fraxinus excelsior subsp.excelsior BOLO0052224 Frassino Frâsen Wild-native MED: Bark decoction is drunk in case of fever (1H,1 M), and diarrhea (1 M).Leaves infusion has laxative (2 M), and diuretic (1 M) properties VET: Wood macerate is given to drink by livestock to treat gastrointestinal disorders (1H) CRAFT: Wood was used to make handles of working tools (1 M) Fraxinus ornus subsp.ornus BOLO0052247 Frassino Wild-native MED: Bark decoction relieves sore throat (6H) REP: Rinsing oneself with bark decoction keeps insects away (1H) Fraxinus spp.-Frassino Wild-native VET: The bark has veterinary uses (3H), the extract in water (having a light blue color) is used to treat sore troth in chicken (1H) REP: The bark in water is used to keep insects away from livestock (1H) Fumaria officinalis L. BOLO0048716 Fumaria Fumaeria Wild-native FOOD: Leaf infusion with honey purifies blood from toxins (2H) MED: Fruit decoction is a galactagogue (1H).Leaf and flower infusion lowers glycemia (1 M) FOOD: Fresh branches are used to make a digestive liquor (1H) MED: Whole plant infusion purifies the liver (1H) and it has diuretic properties (1H) Galium sylvaticum L. BOLO0006790 Caglio di bosco Wild-native FOOD: It was used to curdle milk (1 M) MED: The whey of the milk curdled with this plant is drunk for its anti-inflammatory activity on the urinary tract (1 M) or used externally for baths and packs (1 M) Galium verum L.BOLO0004410 Gallio Impresa-gâj Wild-native FOOD: Stems are used to make rennet for cheese production (1H, 1 M)

Table 2
(continued)The stems, which are very resistant, are harvested in spring and kept together in bunches stored in damp jute sacks.Because of their strength, they are used to tie up vines, and in the stuffing of chairs (2 M) Roots is macerated in "grappa" with sugar for 2 months, obtaining the so called "grappa di vipera", named after the shape of the root that looks like a viper (2 M).
MED: Leaf infusion helps to keep the memory in a good state, preventing brain diseases if it is taken once a day in the evening (2H).It also reduces headache (2H) and prevents ictus (1H).Leaves are used to prepare a cream useful to heal creaked skin (1H) and to relieve hemorrhoid pain (1H) MED: Leaves have cicatrizing and lenitive proprieties (1H).Leaf juice in lard has cicatrizing properties useful in case of burns and wounds (1H).Whole plant boiled in milk is used to treat bronchitis (1 M) MED: Leaf decoction stimulates diuresis (1H) and intestinal transit (1H) Glycyrrhiza glabra L. BOLO0055352 Liquerizia Nigulezzia Miclézzia Sugabacàtt Cultivated FOOD: Roots are eaten (6H).Juice is used to prepare candies (8H) MED: Dried roots are chewed to raise the blood pressure (13H) and to remove catarrh (9H), in addition, they are laxative (3H).Root decoction relieves throat inflammation (3H) and cough (9H), is laxative (2H) and digestive (3H).Root infusion is diuretic (2H) and laxative (2H).Green root infusion together with fennel fruits is galactagogue (3H) MED: Fresh leaves in cataplasms heal pimples (1H).Leaves in cataplasm soften the skin, heal cradle cap (6H), and cure varicose veins (1 M).A cataplasm made of leaves and lard is applied on burns (1H).Cataplasms of boiled leaves heal pimples (1M).Leaves are used to prepare an ointment that promotes wound healing (4H).Leaf boiling water is used for footbaths useful in case of ingrown toenails (1 M).Leaf infusion is a remedy for flu (2H), cough (1H), sore throat (4H), hemorrhoidal (5H) and menstrual pain (2H), caries, and toothache (1H).Leaf decoction regularized menstrual period (1H), it is used externally to make bandages for rheumatism (2 M) and neuralgia (1 M), and used to make healing packs for pimples, redness, and sores (1 M).Leaf decoction in vinegar is used to wrap painful joints and in case neuralgia (2H).Decoction of young fresh leaves in compress relieves calluses (1 M).Fumigation made with boiling stems and leaves is a remedy for cold (1 M) COSM: Leaf boiling water is used for the last rinse on dark hair to give shine (1 M).Fresh leaf juice is used to dye hair (1H).Leaf infusion is anti-cellulitis (1H) SMR: A leaf is placed on the hair to prevent the blisters formation after getting burned (1H) VET: When goats are nervous they are fed with fresh leaves since it is relaxing (2H) OUI: At the beginning of 1900, asylum patient heads were wrapped with ivy leaves, believed able to make them peaceful (1H) MED: Flower infusion has a cough sedative effect (1P).Aerial part decoction is useful to disinfect the first respiratory tract (4H), and for heartburns (2H), or it is used as a rinse to disinfect the throat (2H) COSM: Leaves are used to prepare an ointment that reduces cellulitis (1H)

Table 2
(continued)it is detoxifying for cattle(5 M).Fresh leaves, roots and stems were inserted in the ears of pigs to cure the erysipelas, removing the infection (14H, 8 M).The root is inserted in the ears or in the anus of cows and pigs when they do not produce milk, or they are inappetent (10H) The yellow fruits have a sour taste and are harvested especially in calcareous and limestone landslides.They are used to make a jam, and due to their vitamin and mineral content, they are very useful to strengthen the immune system (4 M) AGROPA:The berry juice was used to smooth horses' hair(1 M) Hordeum murinum L.BOLO0052315 Orzo selvatico Spigarôla Wild-native FOOD: It is often eaten by old people because it is easy to digest (1 M), and very energetic (1 M).Eating barley strengthens the bones (1 M) and helps to prevent heart (1 M) and lung conditions (1 M), it is beneficial in case of gastritis (1 M) and helps to focus (1 M).During the war, it was greatly cultivated, roasted in the fireplace and ground to make a coffee substitute beverage (1 M) MED: A punch of barley is boiled in water which, once cooled, is used to make gargles for sore throat (3 M) and gingivitis (1 M).Barley boiling water is useful against enteritis (1H).Fruit decoction is used in compress on reddened eyes (1 M), and drunk as an anti-inflammatory (1 M) Hordeum vulgare L. BOLO0042641 Orzo Urzón ÔrzCultivated FOOD: Toasted and grounded barley is used to prepare a coffee-like drink, which is purifying for urinary tract (1 M), intestine (1 M), stomach (1 M), and digestive (1 M) MED: Fruits are used to make warm wrap on the chest in case of flu (2H) VET: Aerial parts promote cattle digestion (1P) AGROPA: Aerial parts are used to make the cow bed (1P) DOM: A yellow paper, used to wrap food, it is obtained from the straw (1P) CRAFT: The stems are braided to make handbags (1P) FOOD: Female flowers are used to make beer (6H).The tips of shoots are eaten (1P), and have a digestive effect (1P).Female flower infusion stimulates appetite (1 M) MED: Female flower infusion promotes digestion (2H) and stimulates appetite (1 M).Flower infusion is relaxing (5H) and increases sexual desire (1H), it helps to manage sexual desire because it contains estrogens (1H).The beer was used on insect bites (1 M) SMR: Female flowers are used to fill the pillow of insomnia sufferers (1P, 1 M)Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.)Ser.BOLO0054770 Ortensia Cultivated MED: Infusion of cleaned roots is drunk at the morning as diuretic (5 M), and it is useful against meteorism (1 M).Leaf infusion is relaxing (1 M), and depurative (1 M) DOM: This plant is widely used as a decoration for house and garden (5 M) MED: Leaves are used to soothe burns, remove calluses, cicatrize small wounds, and to cure "giradito" (whitlow) (17H).Leaf pulp is used on burns (3H), wounds and pimples (1H), and on other skin diseases (1H), for its healing properties, it is used in warps on wounds and plagues to extract pus and promote healing (3H).The plant combined with beeswax, olive oil, and a few sprigs of elderberry is used to make a regenerating and healing cream for chapped skin, especially for winter rhagades (1 M).The latex from leaves has a cicatrizing effect, it is applied on insect bites to relieve pain and irritation (1 M), and it is used to treat burns (1 M) MED: Flower and leaf infusion has relaxing properties (6H).Whole plant macerated in oil is used to relieve pain (3H).Leaves are used to make anti-asthma cigarettes (1H).Fumes of boiling water from seeds are inhaled with the mouth in case of toothache (1H)

Table 2
(continued)The flowering tops are harvested traditionally on the night of June 24th (the day of St. Joan), and it keeps demons and evil spirits away, for this reason, a branch is kept above the main entrance of the house or on the stables for protection (4H, 1 M).A flower bunch is burnt to keep demons away (1 M).A bath in a bathtub full of flower increase woman fertility if it is done on 24th of June (1H) MED: Flower infusion is digestive (1 M), it is used against sore throat (3H), and to expel catarrh in case of cough and bronchitis (1H, 1 M).Flowering tops infusion is used in compress to enhance wound-healing (1H).Leaves are used to wrap wound to promote healing (2H) MED: Dry leaf infusion is febrifuge (1 M), diuretic (3 M), astringent (2 M), and it heals hand rheumatisms (1 M).Leaf and fruit macerate is useful in case of rheumatic pain (2H).The bark is washed and used in infusion to drink in case of fever (1 M), and hand rheumatism (1 M) SMR: A twig was hung at the entrance of the house to keep evil spirits away (1 M) AGROPA: Thanks to its thorny leaves, it is cultivated in the garden and vegetable garden to delimit and protect it from wild animals (2 M)Iris spp.-GiaggioloIrisÎriosWild-alien MED: Fried leaves are applied on body parts affected by rheumatic pain (1H) FOOD: Fruits are eaten (7H) for their energetic value (3 M), and to promote digestion (1 M).They relieve migraines (1 M), decrease stress (1 M), and promote small wound healing (1 M).To eat walnuts helps to stay young (1 M).With the unripe nuts is prepared the digestive liquor called "nocino" (7 M).Twelve walnut husks are macerated in alcohol for 48 h to obtain the "nocino" a typical digestive (5P, 26H).Walnuts are collected during the night of St. Joan (24th of June) and macerate in alcohol, sugar, and liqueur wine for 40 days, obtaining the "nocino", which has digestive properties (2 M, 8H).Squeezed nut oil is used to cook (1 M).A leaf is put under the pan to give a nut flavor to the "tigelle" bread (1 M) MED: Leaf decoction is used in lavender or compress against Herpes simplex (1 M).Leaf decoction, in foot bath, improves blood circulation (1H).Leaf infusion is astringent (3H).Leaf macerated in water is used to wash genitals and to heal from genital infections (1H).Walnut husk infusion is used in case of renal colic (2H), and intestinal parasites (3H).Squeezed nuts oil is able to lower cholesterol although it goes rancid earlier than olive oil (1 M) COSM: Walnut husk decoction is used to give brownish color to the hair (1 M, 1H).Squeezed nuts oil is used to soften skin (1 M).Leaves are boiled to do refreshing footbath that decreases sweaty feet (2H, 1 M) VET: Cats and dogs are rubbed with leaf decoction to keep fleas and ticks away, and to treat skin inflammations (1H, 1 M) CRAFT: The wood is widely used for furniture (1 M) DOM: Squeezed nuts oil is used to light oil lamps (1 M) SMR: A walnut tree planted in proximity of the house is considered a good auspice (2H).To keep one or two walnuts in the pocket heals from fever (1 M).A legend says that keep a couple of walnuts in the pocket keeps evil spirits away (1 M).Fresh leaves are applied on ears to heal mumps (1H) FOOD: Cones are used in cookery, to flavor the wild game and meat (2P, 20H, 5 M), and are an ingredient for ham and "salami" (1 M).They are used to make toning (1 M) liquors (11H, 14 M) MED: Juniper cones are antihemorrhagic (1 M), astringent and are used to treat pimples (1 M).DOM: Whole plant is burned to perfume the house (1H).This plant is used to clean chimneys from soot (1 M) SMR: Branches of this plant were placed in the stables to keep "evil eye" away (1 M).REP: Branches keep insects away from stables (1 M) CRAFT: Traditionally the Christmas tree was a juniper (1 M) AGROPA: Sheep and goats if fed with this plant produce tastier milk for cheeses (1 M) OUI: "Maggiociondolo" was used for the traditional flowery processions in May for its beauty and perfume (1 M)

Table 2
(continued) MED: Leaves are used to make wraps on the chest in case of cold (1H), they are smelled to relieve nausea and stomachache (1H).Leaf decoction is a remedy for stomachache (4P), cough (3P), cold (1P), and intestinal gases (2H), and it is diuretic (1P).Leaves decoction was given to children to make them fall asleep (1 M), the decoction with chamomile promotes relax (1P) and sleep (1P).Leaf infusion disinfects oral cavity (5H), it is a remedy for colds (2H), to lower blood pressure (1H, 1 M), and it has a sedative effect (1 M).Dried leaves infusion is drunk after meals to treat aerophagia (1H).Leaves infusion together with lemon peel (called "canarino") is useful against stomachache and nausea (9H).Leaves baths and footbaths stimulate blood circulation (6H).A berry is eaten to lower blood pressure (1 M).

Table 2
(continued) 1 M) DOM: Seed oil is used to shine wood furniture (1H) MED: Bark decoction stimulates sweating (2H).Leaf infusion is anti-inflammatory for the throat (2H).Leaves are applied on the skin to cure wounds and vesicles (2H).Fruit juice is laxative (7H) TOXIC: Raw seeds are poisonous (7H) COSM: Flowers are used to prepare beauty creams and perfumes (7H) Lonicera periclymenum L. BOLO0602030 Caprifoglio Wild-native FOOD: Flowers are sucked for their sweet taste (1 M) MED: Flower infusion is diuretic (1 M), and relieves belly pain (1 M) MED: Flower infusion is used in compress on eczema (1H) AGROPA: The whole plant does not cause flatulence; thus, it is good as feed for livestock (1H) MED: Seed cooking water is anti-lice (2H).Seed macerate is used on eczema and to remove cradle cap (1H).Leaf infusion is a remedy for stomach acidity (1H) Malus domestica (Suckow) Borkh.-Melo Maeil Mail Cultivated FOOD: A digestive liquor is prepared with the seeds (1H).Cooked apples are laxative (2P) MED: Root bark decoction is a remedy for the fever (1P).Bark decoction stops diarrhea (1H).Juice obtained from cooked apple cures cough and bronchitis (9H).Flower infusion is drunk in case of cough (3H), and sore throat (3H).Fruits decoction is vitaminizing (1H)

Table 2
(continued)Leaves are used to prepare a liquor (3H), which heals from stomach conditions (1H).Mauve infusion together with mint and chamomilla is a remedy for gastritis (1H).Mauve baths deflate the feet (1P).Mauve compress gives relief in case of injuries (4P).Leaves are chewed to calm toothache (1P), or used in wraps on inflamed gums (1H).Grounded leaves mixed with milk in cataplasm cure pimples and promote expulsion of foreign matter (1 M). , it is also used to reduce anxiety and to induce sleep (2H).Leaf infusion together with blueberry and oak bark is in wrap against hemorrhoids (2H).Leaf boiling water (after filtration) is used against toothache (1 M), inflamed gums (1 M), drunk as digestive (1 M) or in case of cough (1 M).The leaves after decoction are placed between gauze pads and laid on painful The flowers are macerated for 20 days in alcohol, then filtered and added to a solution of water and sugar to obtain a liquor (3P).
leaf infusion to decrease sexual energy (1 M).Aerial part infusion is calming (1H) and digestive (7H), it reduces insomnia (6H), headache (3H), gastrointestinal pain (1H), stomachache (2H), and sore throat (1H).Dried aerial part decoction improves moodiness and memory (1 M), induces sleep (4 M) and relieves stomachache (1 M) REP: Bunches of lemon balm are hung to keep insects away from clothes (1P).It is planted since it repels mosquitoes (2H) DOM: Leaves are used to perfume the clothes in the wardrobe (5H) COSM: Fresh leaves are used to polish the tooth (1P) FOOD: Leaves are used in cookery (1H), to flavor tea, infusions (4P), beverages, meat (6 M), and several dishes (5H 2H,2 M).Leaves are used to prepare a liquor (14H), obtained by maceration in alcohol for 20 days, then water and sugar are added; it is filtered, and it is drunk since it is digestive and refreshing (2 M).Leaf infusion is refreshing (2P, 7H, 2 M), and has bracing (6H), digestive (1H) and thirst-quenching (2 M, 8H) properties.Leaves are chewed to refresh the mouth (7P, 2H).Fresh leaves are used to prevent the formation of rennet in milk and to prevent fruits from rotting (2H) MED: Leaves are chewed as anti-halitosis (8H).Dried leaves are used on skin to relieve itching (1H).Cataplasm of mint leaves and butter are used to soothe itchy skin (2H).Leaf juice relieves cephalalgia (1H), fresh leaves can be rubbed on the forehead and on the temples to relieve headache (1M).Leaf infusion purifies the liver (1H), is diuretic (3H), digestive (12H, 5M), useful in case of stomach acidity (2H) and stomach conditions (1H), it calms hiccup and stops vomit (1H), carsickness and seasickness (1M), and intestinal swelling (1M); it removes halitosis and disinfect mouth (2H), relieves persistent cough (2M) and sore throat (3H).It is used to relieve insect bite itching (7H), is an analgesic used in case of neuralgia and migraine (1M), it is used to massage the temples to relieve headache (1P).Once cooled, water of infusion is used for rinses in case of oral cavity infections (2M) and diseases (1H).Leaves infusion together with thyme, linden, yarrow and honey is used as treatment against pimples (7H).Infusion of mint, rosemary and sage leaves is useful in case of arthritis (2H).Mint infusion together with chamomilla is useful in case of gastritis (1H).Leaf decoction is used against stomachache (2P) and to promote digestion (1P).Flower infusion together with chamomile is used in fumes against cold (3H).Flower infusion together with violet, elder and linden is used in case of cold (1H).Aerial part infusion is digestive, cures stomachache, and abdominal pain (3H), and in mouthwashes treats toothache (1H) COSM: Whole plant is a refreshing ingredient for warm baths (1M).Fresh leaves together with bicarbonate is used as toothpaste (1H).Leaf infusion is used for breath scenting (1H) REP: Leaves are rubbed on skin to keep mosquitoes away (2P).The plant is used to keep mice away (1M) SMR: Infusion of mint leaves was believed to cause male impotence (1 M) VET: Racehorses are fed with mint to purify their blood and make their coat shinier (1H).Leaf infusion is used to purify livestock liver (1H) TOXIC: Nut should not be eaten because is toxic (1 M) OUI: Eat too many fruits might cause hemorrhoids (2H)Meum athamanticum Jacq.BOLO0602033Finocchio selvatico Wild-native FOOD: Leaves and stems, harvested in spring, are eaten for their deflating and digestive properties (2 M) FOOD: A jam is made with the fruit (2P, 2H) MED: Fruit juice is a remedy for sore throat (1H) AGROPA: Leaves were used to feed silkworms (2P, 3H)

Table 2
(continued) FOOD: Leaves are eaten in salad or soup (2H, 1 M), they stimulate the appetite (1 M), and are tonic due to the content of vitamins and minerals (2 M) MED: The cooking water is anti-inflammatory for the intestine (2H), the decoction is refreshing and used to treat urinary tract inflammation (1 M).Leaves are used in cataplasm to treat pimples (1 M)CultivatedFOOD: Leaves are used in cookery to flavor several dishes (16H, 1 M), and to prepare a digestive liquor (1 M) MED: Leaf infusion is digestive (8H), diuretic (2H) and refreshing (2H), and it is useful against vomit (1H).Leaf decoction calms anxiety (1 M), and it is applied to the inflamed part of the oral cavity (1H).Leaf macerate cures sore throat (1H) and cold (1H) REP: Leaves rubbed on skin keep insects away (3H) FOOD: Olives are purifying, so they are eaten before drinking alcohol.(1H)MED: Olive oil is applied on burns to prevent blister formation (2H), and it cures ear infections (2P), and soothes earache caused by otitis (16H).Two spoons of olive oil are helpful against gallstones (1H), and stomach swelling (1H).Olive oil is put on stye to heal it quickly (3H).One teaspoon of olive oil a day on an empty stomach promotes intestinal transit (9H).Elder bark is boiled in olive oil to obtain an ointment useful against burns (2H).Leaves together with elder are used to make an oleolite useful against burns and dry skin (9H).Olive oil together with a garlic clove is used to make an ointment useful against intestinal worms (2H) COSM: Olive oil makes hair shinier (2P) SMR: The farmers plant an olive branch at the beginning of orchard rows in sign of good omen (1P).An olive tree branch represents peace (6H), it is used to bless the wheat field (1H), it was burnt to ward off the hail, which ruins crops (3H), FOOD: Aerial parts are used to prepare several dishes (3H), they stimulate the appetite and are digestive (6H,1 M) MED: Flower infusion is digestive (1H) and useful against intestinal conditions (1H).The essential oil is useful as an antibiotic (2H) against candida (1H) and as a remedy for burns and wounds (2H).Fresh or dried leaves infusion is digestive and is a remedy for heartburns(1 M)

Table 2
(continued) FOOD: Leaves are used to prepare several dishes (2P, 1H, 1 M), leaves and flowers are eaten in salad (1H).Flowers are a spice used in cookery (1 M) MED: Flower infusion is sedative (12H), it promotes sleep also in kids (1H), it calms cough (1H), removes catarrh (1H) and purifies liver (3H).Seed infusion is drunk to induce and promote sleep (2 M), especially used to asleep children (3H).Latex is a cough sedative (3H) and induces sleep in kids (3H) COSM: Whole plant decoction has anti-wrinkles properties (1 M) AGROPA: It was used as rabbit feed (1 M).Whole plant is considered a weed species for the grain (1 M) CRAFT: Once the girls used the buds to make dolls (1 M) MED: Fresh leaves are chewed to calm toothache (1H), and rubbed on the skin to soothe the itching caused by nettle leaves (1H).Leaf decoction is used in case of edema (1H), it is diuretic (1H) and it is used to make wrap on burns and skin irritations (1H).Dried leaf tea has diuretic properties, and it is beneficial for the urinary tract (2 M).Aerial part decoction is a remedy for fever (2H), colic, stomachache (2H), and catarrh (2H).Whole plant decoction is diuretic and it is used against cystitis (2 M), bladder pain (1P), and pains due to the menstrual cycle (1P), it was also used to treat scarlet fever (1 M) DOM: Leaves are used to clean the glass (2 M), also aerial parts are used to clean bottles and flasks due to their abrasive action (2H), for this reason this plant is called "vetriola" which means glassy (1 M) MED: Fresh leaves are applied on burns (1H).The outer face of the leaf, harvested in springsummer, is placed on wounds to "get the infection out" (1 M).The leaves are used to make a relaxing decoction (2 M).The water of this decoction, once cooled, is used for rinses against gingivitis (1 M), gargles in case of sore throats (1 M), to wash acne (1 M), to massage temples in case of migraine (1 M), it is applied on the body to reactivate blood circulation (2 M), and in compress on burns (1 M) and erythema (1 M) COSM: Cooled water of leaf decoction in bandages is anti-cellulitis (1 M) REP: It is an ornamental plant used to keep away insects (9H).Water of leaf decoction, placed in vases on the balconies of the windows, keeps mosquitos away(1 M)

Table 2
(continued) Infusion of bean peel is useful against gout if it is taken daily for a week (2H).Seeds are used as slimming ingredients in high fat meals because they reduce the fat absorption (1H) GAME: Seeds dried in the sun are used as number markers in the game of bingo(1 M) MED: A drop of resin a day cures respiratory conditions (3H), and heals wounds (1 M).Branches are placed in the warm bath to help in case of rheumatisms, and for the same issue it is used the branch decoction in compress(1 M) Pilosella officinarum Vaill.BOLO0023244 Pilosella Wild-native MED: Whole plant infusion promotes edema resorption and reduces leg swelling (1H) COSM: Aerial part is used to prepare an ointment that reduces cellulitis (1H) Pimpinella anisum L. BOLO0031209 Pimpinella Anice verde Cultivated FOOD: Fresh leaves are eaten as liver purifier (1H) MED: Infusion of parsley, fennel and aniseed reduces stomach acidity (3H).Leaf infusion is useful as intestinal anti-inflammatory and purifying agent (1H).Seed lotion is applied on hair as anti-lice (1H).Seed infusion stops hiccup (1H) REP: The whole plant keeps mosquitos away (1H) AGROPA: The plant is used to feed farm animals (2H) FOOD: The cones are used to make a liquor (1 M) MED: The cones are used to make a balsamic (1H) and cough sedative (2H, 6 M) syrup MED: Resin is used in fumigation for respiratory tract disorders (7H), such as cough (1H) and colds (1H).Resin is spread on a toast, and it is eaten to reduce pregnancy associated nausea (1H).Leaf infusion is expectorant (1H) FOOD: Leaves are rich in vitamin C (1H) MED: Bud decoction is expectorant, cough sedative (1P), useful in case of flu, catarrh and bronchitis.Bud infusion or fumigation have expectorant and antiseptic activity (1H, 3 M).Resin is applied on broken arm to reduce pain and to promote healing (2H) MED: Fresh leaves are applied on sores, wounds or skin rashes to promote healing (1H).Leaf infusion is used against cough (1H) and sore throat (1H), it is astringent (1H), reduces hemorrhoids (1H), and purifies intestine (1H).Seed decoction regulates intestinal functions (1H)

Table 2
(continued)Roots are chewed to quench hunger and thirst and for its licorice like taste (2H), which makes it appealing for kids (3 M).It is eaten because it reduces thirst, since it is plenty of water (1H).Roots are also eaten for their digestive and beneficial properties on the intestines (1 M) Children enjoyed blowing the yellow primrose flowers like whistles (5H) MED: It is chewed in case of sore throat (1H).Root decoction is laxative (1 M).Leaf and root decoction is vermifuge (1 M) MED: Bark decoction is a remedy for stomachache (1H) and diarrhea (1H) SMR: To sleep under a poplar during a rainy night makes a desire come true (1H) MED: Buds decoction fluidifies bronchial secretions (2H) and promotes sweating (2H) COSM: Buds together with poppy and lettuce are mixed with pork fat to obtain an ointment useful for dry hands (1P) VET: Branches are used to feed rabbits to control their growth and strengthen the teeth (1H) FOOD: It is eaten in salad (3P) since it is rich in minerals and iron (2P).Leaves are eaten because they are purifying (2H) MED: Fresh leaves are wrapped on wounds, furuncles, and bee stings (9H).It is used to prepare a laxative infusion since it is rich in mannitol (1P).Whole plant infusion is useful to stop diarrhea, vomiting (3H), and post-partum hemorrhages (3H), it improves sexual performance (2H) FOOD: Leaves are cooked or eaten raw (1 M) MED: Leaves are cleaned and used to make a diuretic (1 M), sedative (1 M) for cough (1 M), and anti-inflammatory (1 M) infusion.Leaf decoction is applied in bandages on the areas affected by rheumatism (1 M).Root decoction is an excellent diuretic (2 M) and anti-diarrheal (1 M); it is effective in case of cough (2 M) and as an anti-nausea (1 M).Water is added to chopped roots and used in bandages to heal muscular pain (1 M) FOOD: Leaves are used to prepare "green lasagna" (2 M).Children suck the flower for its sweet nectar (1 M) GAME: Children enjoy blowing the yellow primrose flowers like whistles (1 M) FOOD: Flowers are eaten in salad (6H) MED: Root and flower infusion calms cough, promotes catarrh expulsion (6H), and activates blood circulation (1H).Flower infusion is used against gout (1H).Leaf infusion calms muscular pain (1H) COSM: Pounded flowers are applied on the skin to make it stronger and younger (1H) GAME: and useful to eliminate toxins (1 M).Seeds are inserted in a small bag, which is warmed up and applied on the neck to fight neck pain (5H, 1 M), or on body parts affected by rheumatism (2H).Seed powder is used to relieve muscular and joint pain (3H)Prunus cerasifera Ehrh.BOLO0052581 Rusticano RusticànCultivatedFOOD: Fruits are laxative (1H) and are used to prepare a jam (2H).Fruits are eaten immature for their acid taste (7H)

Table 2
(continued) MED: Almond oil is used against skin diseases (10H), intestinal parasites (2H) and to relax muscles (4H).Almonds are eaten on an empty stomach to lower the fever (2H) and to relieve nausea and vomiting in pregnant women (2H).Almond nutshell decoction (to take daily for ten days) is useful to cure whooping cough (2H) COSM: Almond oil is used to soft skin (1H) A wine is obtained with the leaves (1P) MED: Fruit infusion is used as intestinal calming and laxative (2H).Leaves are used in wraps on the belly to fight intestinal worms (1H).Leaf infusion is sedative (1H) FOOD: Fruits are used to prepare a digestive liquor (12H, 3 M), are eaten or used to prepare a jam (3H).Fruits are rich in vitamin C and they are useful for seasonal ills (8H).Fruits are eaten (7H), help digestion (6H), and purify the gastrointestinal tract (4H).Eaten in large quantities are laxative (4H).Fruits are astringent (1 M) MED: Leaf infusion is used in case of constipation (2H).Flower infusion is digestive (1H) and laxative (1H).Flowers are laxative (1 M).Bark decoction lowers fever (1H) DOM: Bark was used to dye the wool of red (1H) COSM: Bark is cut and used as toothpaste (2H) FOOD: During famine time, a flower was made of the dry rhizome (1 M) MED: Leaves chopped and soaked in water and alcohol are sprinkled on the area affected by rheumatic pain (3 M).Frond infusion is a remedy for rheumatism (2 M) SMR: Roots are used to prepare an infusion to drink as a love potion (1 M).This plant is harvested and kept at home as a talisman against the difficulties of life (1 M).A legend says that if this plant is harvested at sunrise on June 24th and put in a vase with some coins, it will bring money (1 M).A seed collected on the same morning and carried always with you, brings good luck in gambling (1 M).Root decoction is used to prepare footbaths or handbaths to soften calluses (2H) OUI: Aerial parts were used as envelopes to protect fruits during transport (2H).Root decoction is used to prepare baths with a relaxing effect (2H) REP: It keeps away bugs and parasites (2 M) FOOD: Fruit juice is refreshing and rich in vitamins (7H).Fruit peel is used to flavor several liquors (3H).Fruits are used to prepare sweets and syrup (4H).Fruits are used to prepare syrups and sweets (2H).Eating fruits improves blood circulation (1H) MED: Leaf decoction together with althea leaves stops diarrhea (4H).Fruit is mild laxative (1H).Fresh flowers are refreshing and disinfect gums (1H).Flower infusion is used

Table 2
(continued) A small ball made of two leaves chopped is placed inside a gauze on the body part affected by swelling; after a few hours or half a day, it forms a blister full of liquid, which is punctured to make the swelling disappear(3 M) VET: Gall powder is used against dog eczemas (1H) COSM: Leaf decoction reduces sweating (1H).Bark infusion is used to wash feet and armpits to reduce sweating (1H).Bark decoction is used in a bath to reduce sweating (2H) MED: Radish reduces the risk of kidney affections (1H) SMR: For kidney disease treatment, an infusion of seven "ravanelli" (radishes) is prepared by letting it boil for 7 min.Then it is important to drink it for 7 consecutive days (1H) Raphanus raphanistrum L. BOLO0002280 Rabarbaro palmato Cultivated MED: Root decoction purifies the liver (2H) and body (2H).A cream made of roots is used to calm hemorrhoid pain (1H) Ribes nigrum L. -Ribes nero Cultivated MED: Fruit macerated in alcohol and water is useful in case of asthma (2H).Fruit jam is used to cure burns (1H).Seed decoction cures flu (1H), rheumatism (1H), and relieves gout pain (1H).Seeds ointment is useful in case of eczema (1H) DOM: Fruit juice was used as ink (2H) FOOD: Flowers are eaten fried (1P, 17H, 2 M), are used to prepare sweets (3H), and a liquor (8H).The young branches are collected, washed, and chewed to quench thirst (1 M) MED: Flower decoction is useful against stomachache (3H).Flower infusion is laxative (1H), cures sore throat (5H) and respiratory affections (3H).Leaf and flower infusion is astringent and is a remedy for diarrhea (1 M), colds (3 M), coughs (3 M), throat inflammations (1 M), and gingivitis in oral rinses (1 M).The honey from the flowers is a cough sedative (3H) AGROPA: Flowers attract bees which make honey (10H, 2 M) SMR: The branches, characterized by numerous thorns, were kept in the house to ward off spirits (1 M) CRAFT: Wood is used to make scaffolds since it is very resistant (2 M) DOM: Wood is burned to heat the house (1H, 1 M)

Table 2
(continued)It is used in cookery as flavor (3P, 35H, 19 M), and it enhances meat digestion (4H, 2 M) Leaves, that have vinegar-like aroma, are eaten in salad or boiled to cure vitamin deficiency (1H), for their refreshing (1 M) and diuretic properties (3H, 2 M), and because they purify the liver (1H) and promote digestion (2 M).Children ate leaves because of their sour, tart taste (2 M).Leaves are chewed for their pleasant sour taste (1 M).Whole plant is useful for treating loss of appetite (2 M) MED: Leaves wrap is used to cure hemorrhoids (5H).Leaf decoction is used to wash the mouth in case of oral inflammation (1H), it is drunk in summer to depurate the organism (1H).Root infusion is useful against abdominal swelling (2H).Leaves are crushed and mixed with oil to remove calluses (10H)

Table 2
(continued)The shoots are used in cookery to prepare several dishes (1P).During the war, seeds were roasted and used as coffee substitutes (1 M).Leaves crushed are applied as cataplasm against stomachache (1P).Leaf infusion keeps intestinal parasites away (1H).Leaf decoction together with oak bark stops diarrhea (3H).Leaf macerated in olive oil is used in cases of muscular or joint pain and neuralgia (1H).Leaf juice, heated together with a bit of olive oil, is placed into ears in case of otitis or ear infections to hill and reduce earache (1H, 1 M) SMR: The table was covered with an odd number of petals (higher than 50) to have peaceful sleep and digestion (1H).The aerial parts were used as amulets (2P).The plant cultivated in the garden keeps "evil eye" away (1 M) REP: The whole plant keeps fleas and lice away (1P).The plant is cultivated in the garden to keep vipers away (9H, 1 M).The fresh branches keep mice away (1H) MED: Decoction of branches bark cures fever (1P).Bark decoction is laxative (1H), useful in case of flu (5 M), fever (2 M), pains (1 M), cold (1 M), sore throat (1 M), migraine (1 M), and menstrual pain (1 M).Flower infusion is sedative (3 M), and was claimed able to decrease sexual energy (1 M) CRAFT: Farmers make baskets and several tools for peasant life with the willow branches (3P, 4H, 1 M) Salix caprea L. BOLO0003060 Salice Salicone Wild-native AGROPA: Leaves are used to feed goats (1 M) VET: Leaves help goats against swelling (1 M) DOM: Branches are used to tie vine (1 M)

Table 2
(continued)Flowering tops are collected in bouquets, and due to their bad small, are used to keep lice and fleas away from chickens and from dogs (2H) According to folk saying the whole plant is useful against Amanita phalloide poisoning (2H)

Table 2
(continued) Dried fruits are boiled, and the water, once cooled, is used to make packs on the face to reduce redness (1 M), and used as a detergent to prevent wrinkles and early aging of the skin (1 M) CRAFT: The part of the trunk near the root was used to make hammers because the wood is very hard and resistant (1 M) Fresh plant juice is used in a ritual, called "segnatura", performed to exorcize the fear due to trauma (2 M).The plant is harvested on the Night of S. Johan (23th of June), bunches are dried, and extracted in water as a decoction used in a ritual to wash away the fear, by praying or casting a spell.If the liquid is getting turbid it means that the ritual needs to be repeated the next day until the liquid will stay limpid (1 M).

Table 2
(continued) 3P), and lower blood pressure (16H).Leaves are eaten with bread and eggs since they are rich in minerals and have a depurative (2 M) effect, but are slightly laxative (2 M).Leaves are rich in iron (8H).Young leaves are the best for depurative salads (1 M, 7H), together with apples, cheese and walnut oil (1H).Stems are boiled and eaten in salad (23 M).Aerial parts have diuretic (3P) and hepatic protective proprieties (3P, 1 M).Flowers (buds 3 M) are used in cookery (5H), they are eaten in salads or in soups (3H); before blossoming are placed in vinegar to make preserves (1H).Flower jam is beneficial for the troth (1H).Roots are roasted and used to prepare a coffee substitute beverage (1P, 1H) MED: Leaf decoction is thirst-quenching, it is useful against urinary tract inflammations (2H), and is a diuretic(19 M).Leaf boiling water is drunk to purify the liver (12 M).Leaf infusion is bladder refreshing (1H), purifies the liver (1H, 1 M), it has refreshing properties (1H), and lowers blood pressure (1H).Flowers macerated in sugar and boiled give a product similar to honey to be used as syrup to heal cough or sore throat (5 M).Flower decoction is a diuretic (1 M).Aerial parts decoction is diuretic, and useful for kidney conditions (2P, 1H) and to purify the liver (2P).Root infusion is diuretic and digestive (1 M), and is beneficial for the kidney (1H).

Table 2
(continued) Fresh plant (4 M) (or fresh plant juice (1 M)) is rubbed on the painful body parts to reduce rheumatism, or for muscular pain (3H), this treatment has to be prolonged for one week (5H).Leaf juice with honey is used to cure hemorrhoids (2H), while mixed with olive oil is used as a lotion able to activate circulation and is useful against chilblains (1 M).Leaf juice is used in the case of nosebleeds (1H), while together with olive oil and salt it is used in the case of chilblains (1H).Fresh leaves are rubbed on wrists to cure bone pain (1H), and on sore body parts in case of back pain and arthritis (2 M).Leaves are used to treat ingrown Nettle is used to feed chickens (2H), in particular, fresh leaves are mixed with corn flour to prepare hence feed, which increases egg production (1P), and the eggs of the hens fed with nettle are more nutrient and reddish (1H, 2 M).Chickens are fed with fresh leaves and corn flour during weaning (4H).Leaf infusion is given to livestock since it is a nutrient and thirstquencher (1 M).
toenails (1 M).Powder leaves are sniffed in case of nosebleeds (2H).Leaf decoction is used in gargling against throat inflammation (1H), in warps it stops hemorrhages (2H) and relieves joint pain (1H), it has diuretic action (1P, 12 M), induces menstruation (1H), cures intestinal inflammations and diarrhea (2 M), and it is liver depurative (4 M).The same decoction is used against impotence (1H).Boiled leaves in wrap are useful against pimples (1H).Boiled leaves are used for massages to treat rheumatism (3 M).Leaves boiled in wine are diuretic (1 M).Leaves infusion purifies the blood (2H) and the body (1H, 1 M), it is slightly laxative (6H), and it is used as a tonic (1H).Whole plant infusion is useful against diarrhea (5H).Aerial part infusion is a diuretic (1H) and is used in case of stomachache (1H), diarrhea, and enteritis (1H).Aerial part decoction yields a purple liquid, that stops hemorrhages (1 M), and mixed with honey and used to calm hemorrhoid pain (1 M), and calms urticaria rush (1 M).Leaf macerated in alcohol is used in case of diarrhea (2H).Roots powder is boiled with sugar to make a syrup useful in case of cough (1H) COSM: Fresh leaves are rubbed on the scalp to reduce dandruff (1 M, 2H).Boiled leaves are chopped and used to obtain an anti-dandruff ointment (2H).Leaf decoction is indicated for oily hair (1 M, 3H), it is used to wash the hair (5 M, 8H), is used to counteract hair loss (7 M, 1H) and dandruff (5H, 1P, 8 M), to strengthen it (1P, 3H) and to make it shiner (2H, 2 M).Leaf decoction together with vinegar strengthens hair (1H) and reduces dandruff (1H).Leaf infusion reduces hair loss, hair strengthens (9H), and makes it shinier (3H).Leaves are macerated in denatured alcohol for 40 days and used on the scalp as a remedy for hair loss (1 M).Leaves macerated in wine are used in wraps on the scalp and, with water, to wash hair (1 M).Leaves macerated together with rosemary and aquavit reduce hair loss (1H).Roots are macerated in alcohol to prepare a lotion against hair loss (1H) SMR: According to a folk saying, nettle leaves do not sting if collected while holding your breath (1H).Legends say that rolling on a field of nettle increases sexual energy (1 M), occasional pricking prolonged life (1 M), and throwing nettle in the fire drove away thunderbolts (1 M, 1H) AGROPA: