Ethnomedicinal survey of various communities residing in Garo Hills of Durgapur, Bangladesh

Background Garo Hills represents one of earliest human habitation in Bangladesh preserving its ancient cultures due to the geographic location. It is situated in the most northern part of Durgapur sub-district having border with Meghalaya of India. Durgapur is rich in ethnic diversity with Garo and Hajong as the major ethnic groups along with Bangalee settlers from the mainstream population. Thus the ethnomedicinal practice in Garo Hills is considered rich as it encompasses three different groups. Present survey was undertaken to compile the medicinal plant usage among the various communities of the Garo Hills. Methods The ethnomedicinal data was collected through open and focussed group discussions, and personal interviews using semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 185 people were interviewed, including the three community people and their traditional health practitioners (THPs). The usage of the plants were further analysed and are presented as use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL). Results A total of 71 plants from 46 families and 64 genera were documented during our survey. Gastrointestinal disorders represented the major ailment category with the use of 36 plant species followed by dermatological problems (25 species). The ICF ranged from 0.90 to 0.99, with an average value of 0.96. Leaves (41) were the principle source of medication followed by fruits (27). Trees (33) were the major plant type used in the ethnobotanical practice. A total of 25 plants showed high FL (70.91 to 100 %) with 12 plants showing maximum FL (100 %). A number of the plants appear to have unique ethnomedicinal uses. Conclusion Present investigation revealed a rich traditional practice in the studied region, which provides primary health care to the local community. This compilation of the ethnobotanical knowledge can help researchers to identify the uses of various medicinal plants that have a long history of use.


Background
The Garo Hills in Durgapur sub-district is one of the most remote areas of the northern part of Bangladesh. Ethnic groups like the Garos and Hajongs reside in this area from ancient times along with Bangalee settlers who have also settled in this region hundreds of years ago. The Garos are one of the eminent ethnic groups of the Indian sub-continent. Around half a million Garo population can be found at various parts of the world, but most of them live in the north-eastern part of India [1]. At present, one-fifth of the total Garo population live in different regions of Bangladesh with their habitat spread in north-central districts namely Mymensingh, Netrakona, Gazipur, Sherpur and Tangail. Garos are mainly known for their matrilineal culture and individual kinship system [2]. Garos prefer to call themselves Achik (Hilly Garos) and Mandis (Plain Land Garos), although people not familiar with their culture simply call them as Garo [3]. Hajongs are also a small indigenous community of the Garo Hills. They came from Tibet to Assam and then to Bangladesh [4]. The Bangalee settlers, who although belonging to the mainstream population of Bangladesh, have settled alongside the ethnic communities and have through cross-cultural exchanges with the ethnic communities for centuries, have to some extent adopted the cultures of the ethnic communities.
Tribal people and people who live in remote areas depend considerably on medicinal plants for their primary treatment. Due to this factor, medicinal plant usage in such communities is far richer than say, the urban population. The exploration of the therapeutic activity of medicinal plants rendered by them has a long history of use passed on from generation to generation [5]. However, in recent years, there has been a continuous decline in their traditional medicinal practice due to several reasons including scarcity of medicinal plants due to mass deforestation, easier access to modern medicines, and reduced interest of younger generation towards herbal medicine. The objective of the present study was to document the medicinal plant knowledge prevailing in the Garo, Hajong and Bangalee communities residing in Garo Hills and compare the presently obtained information with previously reported ethnomedicinal uses of the plants in Bangladesh towards obtaining fresh insights into newer ethnobotanical uses of the plants. In our present study, the ethnopharmacological knowledge was collected from knowledgeable people belonging to the Garo, Hajong and Bangalee communities and the traditional health practitioners of the three communities. The results were further analyzed for comparative evaluation of the usage of individual plant species to provide an overview of medicinal plant usage in communities living in Garo Hills.

Study area
The Garo tribal people can be found in districts north of Dhaak district in Bangladesh. These districts are Tangail, Mymensingh, Gazipur and Netrakona. They speak six dialects of the Mandi language, which are A'tong, Abeng, Brak, Chibok, Dual, and Megam. The Garos can also be found in the the adjacent bordering areas of India like Meghalaya. Most of the Garos are poor and their main occupation is agriculture or agricultutal labourers. In recent years, they are converting in mass numbers to Christianity. The Garos call themselves A-chik Mande, literally meaning the hill people.
The Hajongs are also a tribal community living alongside the Garos and can be found in districts like Mymensingh, Sherpur, Sylhet and Netrakona districts in Bangladesh, and Meghalaya in India. They have apparently come to their present region several hundred years ago. The Hajongs are basically a farming community, and by religion close to the Hindus. The Hajongs have their own language but do not have any alphabets. Some hajongs are lately converting to Christianity. In economic terms, like the Garos, most hajongs are poor and their literacy rate is very low.
The Bangalees belong to the mainstream population of Bangladesh. They have settled in the present region of survey along side the Garos and Hajongs from as early as 50 to 100 or more years. Their interaction with the Garos and Hajongs has largely been peaceful. Like the Garos and the Hajongs, the Bangalee community is also engaged in farming, and are mostly poor and illiterate.
The survey was carried out at Garo hills, Durgapur subdistrict which is under the district of Netrakona in Dhaka division, Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The area of Durgapur is 293.43 sq km. The study area is located in the most northern part of Durgapur, having the coordinates of 25.1250°N and 90.6875°E. Durgapur is surrounded by Meghalaya state of India on the north, Purbadhala and Netrakona Sadar on the south, Kalmakanda on the east, and Dhobaura sub-district on the west. The main rivers of this sub-district are Old Someshwari, Kangsa and Someshwari. The Garo valleys and hills are situated in the northern part of this sub-district. The Garo villages in Durgapur where the survey was conducted were Noluapara, Gupalpur, Bhobanipur, Badambari, Farongpara, Dahapara, and Fulbari. The Hajong villages were Gupalpur, Bhobanipur, Badambari, Shamnogor, and Baromari. The villages where the Bangalee communities resided and which were included in the survey were Atrakhali, Noluapara, Baromari, Fanda, and Cholk Lengura. It may be noted that the village of Noluapara contained both Garo and Bangalee communities, while the village of Badambari contained both Garo and Hajong communities, and the village of Baromari contained both Hajong and Bangalee communities. Thus to some extent, the three communities co-resided in the same village, and all the villages fell within Durgapur sub-district and thus were close to or adjacent to each other. As a result, there was a large amount of crosscultural relationships between the three communities.
Government establishments are the only health facilities provided for inhabitants of Durgapur which include one health complex, one health center and seven family planning centers. However, such establishments lack adequate facilities and trained medical professionals. Geologically all part of the study area is almost identical. Topographically, the study area is characterized by its large hillocks, known as tilla. The soil pH fluctuates from 6 to 6.5. This area is located in the semi-drier part of Bangladesh. The highest temperature reaches to 30°C during May and coldest to around 10°C during January. The most common ethnic group of this area is Garo and Hajong with Bangalee community settlers interspersed within the two communities. So far, a total of 2924 Garo households and 505 Hajong households have been recorded in this sub-district; the number of Bangalee households have been recorded as 4778 [6].

Ethnobotanical survey
The survey was conducted during the period from 10 th October, 2013 to 7 th May, 2014. Before starting the survey, general information was collected about the study area as well as THPs and general people. The data was collected following the standard guidelines of ethnobotanical data collection [7,8]. A total of 185 people participated in interviews including THPs and knowledgeable people from all three communities. All were permanent residents of the study area. The highest number of respondents of our study belonged to the Garo and Hajong ethnic communities. Respondents were selected on the basis of whether they gave an affirmative answer when asked about their medicinal plant knowledge. Following an affirmative answer, detailed interviews were conducted with the respondents where they discussed their knowledge on medicinal plants and showed the plants. Multiple interviews (occasionally as many as [4][5] were conducted with the informants to gather as much detailed knowledge of the medicinal plants as possible.

Data collection
While some people were co-operative to our initiative, some were less interested to continue with the conversation. In most cases, the preliminary hesitation was recovered through a brief explanation of the objective of our study in the native language of the informants. As the conversation continued, we tried to build the confidence of the interviewee so the person interacted spontaneously. Senior citizens, forest office and local administrations were consulted to identify personnel with sufficient knowledge in local ethnobotanical practices. During the study period, the ethnomedicinal data was collected through the open-ended, semi-structured interviews according to Martin and Cotton [9,10]. The information of each plant was documented along with the local name, nature of the plant, plant part used, medicinal uses, mode of preparation, routes of administration, and degree of scarcity in this area. Recorded demographic data include the gender, age, ethnicity, experiences, and educational background. All information in relevance to data collection was carefully noted down. The informants were also requested for a walk to introduce us with the plants. Necessary plant parts were collected for the purpose of identification. Pictures of the plant/plant part were also taken to assist in the identification. Plant specimens were verified as to taxonomy at the Bangladesh National Herbarium. Voucher specimens were deposited with the Medicinal Plant Collection Wing of the University of Development Alternative (MPCW-UODA) and accession numbers obtained from there. For ethical issues connected to field work permission was obtained from various bodies like the Ethical Committee and the Institutional Review Board of the University of Development Alternative, and local Government bodies dealing with indigenous/tribal people. A clear understanding was made with the people surveyed that their intellectual property rights as to the information supplied will not be violated if the results lead to any economic benefits for us.

Quantitative analysis
The medicinal uses of various plant species were listed in alphabetical order of the scientific names of the plants along with their family name, local name, nature of the plant, ethnomedicinal applications, mode of preparation, and route of administration. The results were presented and analysed further on the basis of their use and ailment categories. The diversity of the uses of medicinal plants were evaluated by calculating use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF), and fidelity level (FL).
Use values are computed for each plant to provide a quantitative measure of its comparative significance to the informants [11]. UV was calculated by the equation: where, 'UV s ' indicates the use value of a particular species, 'UV is ' is the number of use reports mentioned by the informants for that particular plant species and 'n s ' is the total number of informants participated in our study. The main objective of UV calculation is to find out the degree of ethnomedicinal use for a particular plant species. High UV value indicates the broad acceptance of that particular plant species for a particular therapeutic use.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to measure the homogeneity of the information for a specific plant to cure a specific ailment [12,13]. The lowest and highest values of ICF can be 0.00 and 1.00, respectively. ICF was calculated using the equation: Where, 'N ur ' refers to the total number of use reports for a particular ailment category, and 'N t ' is the total number of species used for this ailment category. Several diseases were sorted out into a broad ailment category depending on similarity for the ease of the distribution of the plants.
Fidelity level (FL) expresses the priority of a species over the others in the management of a particular ailment and was calculated using the following formula: Where, 'I p ' is the number of informants stating the use of a species for a particular ailment category while 'I u ' is the number of informants stating the use of that plant for any sort of ailment category. Higher FL value indicates more frequent of use of a given plant species for treating a particular ailment category by the informants.

Results and discussion
Demographic characteristics of participants in the study The Garo tribe is one of the leading indigenous communities of Bangladesh which claims to be distributed among approximately 45 clans. The last population estimation of Garos was in 1991, when it was numbered at 68,210. While known to all as Garos, they refer to themselves as Aa'chik or Mandi. Anthropologists accept as true that they are a Tibetan-Burmese sub-group of the Mongoloid race which possesses language, shared history and culture. The Garos are divided into four sects, namely, Chatchi, Marakh, Momin, and Sangma. Their society is matriarchal with daughters inheriting their mother's belongings. Garo's novel religion used to be Shangsharik, but recently about 99 % of the Garos have converted to Christianity and belong to a variety of denominations like Baptists, Presbyterians, Protestants, Roman Catholics and Seventh Day Adventists. Scholars do not have a clear opinion on the Hajong's history, even the Hajong themselves. Some say the Hajong originated in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong, Bangladesh and afterward migrated to the northern areas of Bangladesh and into India. Another important opinion is that the Hajong tribe came from Tibet as descendents of the Kachhari people and settled in the Kamrup area of Assam state for several years. The northern Dhaka division, which constitutes the land of the Hajong in Bangladesh, consists of districts like Netrakona, Mymensingh, Sherpur and Jamalpur. Today, the Hajong of the Durgapur area continue to live primarily in Hajong villages together with Bengalis (Bangalee or Bengali/Bangla-speaking mainstream population) and other tribal communities, such as Garo and Koch, whose village homes are simple but clean. Women perform the family cooking in a separate attached hut adjacent to the living house, cooking rice as their staple food. Hajong are mainly a farming community and some work as hired day laborers in the fields, whereas others farm their own land. Some Hajong of Durgapur areas are also involved in collecting and selling wood from the Garo hills along the border. In terms of religion, Hajongs are close to Hindus. Hajongs worship Durga as well as other Hindu gods and goddesses. But Shiva is their principal deity. Hajongs wear 'paita' (a thread) on their bodies similar to Hindu Brahmans. Hajongs are believers in reincarnation too, like the Hindus.
The Bangalee community belongs to the mainstream population of Bangladesh, who speak Bengali or Bangla. While some families claim to have settled in the general areas of the Garos and Hajongs for more than a hundred years, others claim to have settled in the area in comparatively recent times like about 50 years ago. But in general, the Bangalee community lives in close association with the Garos and the Hajongs and the cultural practices of the three communities have intertwined in some aspects, the major difference being that most Bangalee settlers belong to the Muslim religion.
The survey was conducted among all three communities. The participants consisted of 62.16 % male and 37.83 % female. Out of 185 informants, 30 were THPs, 60 Bangalee people and the remaining 95 were tribal people from the Garo and Hajong communities (that is a total of 155 persons were non-traditional health practitioners but claimed to have good knowledge on medicinal plants). Prior Informed Consent was first obtained from all informants. According to the age, most of the informants (42.16 %) were 50-60 years old followed by informants (25.41 %) who were 40-50 years old (Table 1). Among 30 traditional health practitioners, 50 % had 10-20 years of experience in ethnomedicinal practice in their present area. According to the educational background, majority of the informants were illiterate (42.62 %), with only two persons holding postgraduate degrees. Among the participants, it was observed that as a general rule, THPs do not disclose the plant name or the formula of their preparation to other      (Table 4) [35,36]. The medicinal plants were distributed according to these major categories. ICFs were calculated for the pre-recorded plants and ranged from 0.90 to 0.99 (Table 5). High ICF value refers to an increased evidence of the efficacy of a plant species to treat a given ailment [37]. The ailment category of 'sexual stimulant' has the highest ICF scoring (0.99). Bombax ceiba (UV 1.72) is mainly used as sexual stimulant. Although the ICF for gastrointestinal disorders (0.96) was less compared to ailment categories of sexual stimulant, heart diseases, or hematological disorders, the highest number of plant usage (36 species) was documented under this category. Use of too many plant species for a wide range of ailments can render a low ICF and may require further analysis of the results to identify the most useful plant for a given ailment. On the other hand, a high ICF signifies that the users have greater reliability with the use of the plants for the respective major ailment category. There is a higher possibility of for plants with higher ICF to contain relevant bioactive phytochemicals [35] people (however, they provided this information to us after proper explanation as described before). They transfer their knowledge verbally either to one or more of their family members or to their assistant (known as the 'Sishya' of the THPs). On the other hand, non-THPs always reveal their knowledge to their family member or anyone from their community who is interested in such knowledge.

Medicinal plants recorded
Through this survey, a total of 71 plant species belonging to 46 families were recorded, that have various medicinal uses in the study area. The highest number of medicinal plants belong to Fabaceae (6 species), followed by Rutaceae (4 species), Anacardiaceae (3 species), Asteraceae (3 species), Combretaceae (3 species), Myrtaceae (3 species) and Zingiberaceae (3 species).
The results are shown in Table 2. Botanical families including Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Combretaceae, and Zingiberaceae have previously been shown to be the major medicinal plant families of Durgapur Garo Hills [6]. Similar results were found in surveys carried out in the Eastern Himalayan region of India [14]. The family Fabaceae reportedly has the highest number of species, more than any other plant family in the world [15,16].
In the current study, high UVs were observed for Ananas sativus (1. 96 The lowest UVs were obtained for Cassia fistula (0.21), Lannea coromandelica (0.24), Cinnamomum verum (0.28), Ipomoea aquatica (0.29), and Acacia catechu (0.33) (Tables 3, 4 and 5). However, a low UV does not nullify the merit of the medicinal value of a plant species as the low UV might be linked to low availability of the plant in the study area.
The fidelity level (FL) of the plants, which were cited 25 times or more for any particular disease are listed in Table 6 with the lowest and highest FLs being 70.91 % and 100 %, respectively. The highest FL of 100 % was recorded for 12 plant species of which, three species namely, Aegle marmelos, Carica papaya, Terminalia chebula were used for gastrointestinal disorders. Thus, among 36 plant species used in gastrointestinal disorders, three were found to be used extensively. Among 25 plants used for dermatological problems, only Azadirachta indica scored 100 % FL.
Plants having high FL values in other ailment categories are Ananas sativus, Averrhoa carambola, Bombax ceiba, Citrus grandis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Syzygium cumini, Terminalia arjuna, and Zingiber officinale. These plants are widely used in many ethnobotanical practices around the world with sufficient scientific validations of their ethnomedicinal use [16][17][18]. Information regarding the preparation Various plant parts including leaves, root, stem, fruits, bark, flowers, seeds, whole plant, and rhizomes were widely used for the treatment of diverse types of ailments. Leaves were found to be the most used plant part in the ethnomoedicinal practice of Garo Hills, which was followed by fruits (23 %), and root (9 %) (Fig. 2). Similar to our present finding, leaves were found to be the most used plant part in many other ethnomedicinal practices [19][20][21][22][23]. Metabolically the most active part of the plant, leaves are known to synthesize a wide range of secondary metabolites [24,25]. Leaves are also the first choice in ethnomedicine due to the easy collection and preparation procedure [26,27].
There are several modes of preparation of ethnomedicines, including juice, decoction, powder, paste, oil, etc. The major mode of ethnobotanical preparations in Garo Hills was found to be juice (35 %), followed by fresh fruits (25 %), decoction (16 %), and paste (16 %) (Fig. 3). The local people of Garo Hills often add salt, sugar, banana, milk or lemon (e.g., see Asparagus racemosus) to enhance the effectiveness or palatability of a preparation. Paste is prepared using mortar and pestle, and then often mixing it with mustard oil, coconut oil or ginger (e.g., Cassia occidentalis). For THPs, it is more common to use more than one plant in the formulation of a preparation, to be used for the treatment of a particular ailment. A comparison of the mode of administration of the preparations is presented in Fig. 4, which has a similar trend as that of some other ethnobotanical reports [28].
Habit, habitat, and nature of the plants Among the recorded 71 medicinal plant species of Garo Hills, 35 % are trees followed by 30 % herbs, and 10 % shrubs (Fig. 5). While some plants are grown in home gardens, most of them can be found growing naturally in places including pond side, roadside, riverside or in the hills. Trees and herbs enjoy a higher usage in ethnomedicinal practice because of their greater availability [29,30]. Of the recorded 71 plant species; THPs reported the highest number of plants species used by them as trees during our current study.  uses, and the uses observed in the present survey match at least one of the reported uses. The question naturally arises as to whether there are any unique uses of the various plant species used by the Garo, Hajong and Bangalee traditional medicinal practitioners. In fact, there are a number of uses which are unique to these three communities and which previously have not been reported. A. catechu, which was observed in the present study to be used for diarrhea and skin diseases, has been previously reported to be used for blood dysentery [31]. The various uses of A. chinensis described in the present study have not been reported before. A. malaccensis was used by the practitioners for body pain, skin diseases, ulcer, edema and jaundice. The only previously reported use of this plant was for treatment of headache [32]. The use of A. racemosus for treatment of epilepsy and stomach ulcers has not been reported before. B. oleracea, used to treat gynaecological disorders and as a tonic has no previously reported ethnomedicinal uses in Bangladesh. C. officinalis was used by the practitioners to treat old wound, itches, menstrual problems, stomach upset, ulcer and inflammation. The previously reported use of this plant was against ear ache, skin infections, and insect bite [33]. The use of C. occidentalis to treat leg pain is new.

Comparative ethnomedicinal uses of the plants in Bangladesh
Other hitherto unreported uses of the various plant species include use of C. asiatica for skin lesions; use of C. tamala for headache; use of C. verum for coughs; use of C. quadrangularis for stomach upset, stomach ulcer and malaria fever; use of C. grandis for scabies, eczema and itches; use of C. cordifolia for wounds; use of C. dactylon for diabetes; use of D. regia for piles and boils (the previously reported use of this plant was to increase sexual energy [34]); use of D. indica for fever and coughs; use of D. peregrina for dysentery and cholera; use of E. cardamomum for asthma; use of F. limonia for pimples; use of I. aquatica for piles; use of L. coromandelica for urinary problems and diabetes; use of N. arbor-tristis for constipation; use of P. sylvestris for nervousness, coughs and fever; use of P. guajava for menstrual disorders; use of S. dulcis for fever; use of S. indicum for fistula, burns associated with infection, pain and blisters; use of S. aromaticum for asthma; use of S. cumini for excessive bleeding during menstruation; and use of T. indica

Relevance of the findings for public health and/or environmental issues
Bangladesh is a developing country with the vast majority of people (including tribal/indigenous communities) living in rural areas with inadequate access to modern doctors and clinics. Moreover, such doctors, clinics and allopathic medicine are not affordable to these people. As such, any scientific studies carried out with medicinal plants used traditionally and involving pharmacological activity studies, isolation and identification of bioactive components, followed by clinical trials can go a long way in mitigating the sufferings of these poor illiterate communities, for these plants are still to some extent available and easily affordable. From that view point, ethnomedicinal studies like this can spur scientific interest leading to scientific validation of traditional uses of medicinal plants.
The other relevant point is such studies and findings can spur conservation efforts in preserving both plants and knowledge of their uses, for both are fast disappearing because of rapid deforestation caused from increases in population, and rural people forgetting their traditional knowledge because of the introduction of 'city culture and habits'. Such introduction is causing the rural people to somewhat disdain their traditional way of living and culture, considering these as 'primitive' and not fit for the modern age. Plants have always formed a good source for many efficacious allopathic medicines and thorough documentation of traditional ways of   Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. Diabetes, sexual disorder by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; weakness and headache by folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of two villages in Rajshahi district [38]; used against diabetes by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; used against spermatorrhea by a village FMP in Faridpur district [40]; spermatorrhea by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; dyspepsia, dysentery, physical sickness, urinary incontinence, burning sensations in the urinary tract in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; leucorrhea, scabies by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; sex stimulant by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; leucorrhea, menstrual problems by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; gonorrhea, leucorrhea, constipation, menstrual troubles by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; irregular menstruation, painful menstruation, burning sensations in the uterus by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; debility by FMPs in villages by the Ghaghot River of Rangpur district [48]; debility by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; diabetes by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [49]; astringent by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; to induce regular menstruation, abscess, sexual diseases in men, low sperm count by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; menstrual problems, meho (endocrinological disorders, diabetes) by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; passing of semen with urine by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; debility, infertility in women due to problems in uterus (badhok disease) by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; to increase libido by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; gonorrhea, sexual weakness by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; burning sensations during urination, dysentery, pain by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; sexual disorders by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; irregular menstruation by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; meho (endocrinological disorders), promeho (sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea) by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; burning sensations during urination, sexual problems by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; to keep body cool by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; sexual weakness, general weakness by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; 'meho' (endocrinological disorder but generally indicative of diabetes) by TMPs of the Tudu sub-clan of the Santal tribe in Joypurhat district [62]; sexual weakness, irregular menstruation, pain and burning sensations during menstruation by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; rise of blood pressure during night by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; irregular menstruation, leucorrhea, anemia by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; decrease in sexual strength by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; headache, hardening of skins in the body by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; premature ejaculation, antidote to poisoning, intestinal dysfunction by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; weakness by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; spermatorrhea by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; vaginitis by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; low sperm count by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; diabetes, urinary disorder by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; diabetes by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; physical weakness by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73].
Blood dysentery in humans and cattle by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74].
Achyranthes aspera L. Snake bite, diabetes, gonorrhoea by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; menstrual disorders and burning sensations during urination in two villages of Rajshahi district [38];]; frequent ejaculation by itself in Faridpur district [40]; leucorrhea, dysentery, jaundice in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; blood dysentery, toothache, wound, sciatica, abortifacient, eczema by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; abortifacient by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; coughs, pneumonia, snake bite, eczema, stomach pain, gonorrhea, low semen count, leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; hematuria by FMPs in villages by the Ghaghot River of Rangpur district [48]; to stop bed-wetting in children, tooth diseases, enlargement or shrinking of scrotum by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; low sperm count, to increase sexual power, debility, jaundice by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; jaundice, to increase libido by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; eczema by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; leucorrhea by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; burning sensations during urination, kidney stone by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; tooth infections, irregular menstruation by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; dermatitis, chronic dysentery, blood dysentery, menorrhagia by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; leucorrhea by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; skin infections by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; infertility in woman, bleeding while pregnant (blood can be present in urine or just comes out of the vagina) by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; low density of semen by FMP of Jhenidah district [66]; frequent ejaculation by itself by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; vomiting tendency, diarrhea, excessive blood during menstruation by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; injury by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; dental abscess, diabetes by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; jaundice, respiratory problems by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; poisonous animal bites, inflammation of the body, fever, cough and mucus due to cold, asthma, tonsillitis by the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts region [76]; severe stomach pain, excessive bleeding following menstruation by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; edema by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; to increase libido by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; bitter, to increase appetite, vomiting tendency, coughs, obesity, respiratory tract disorders, piles, pain, gastrointestinal disorders, jaundice by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; nocturnal emissions, constipation, burning sensations during urination by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81]; stomach pain, flatulency by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; severe pain, whitish discharge from vagina, hair loss, jaundice, tooth infections, uterine problems by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; diabetes by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; to increase sexual strength by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; urinary problems like passing of blood in urine by TMPs of the Pankho tribe of Bilaichari Union, Rangamati district [86]; abscess by TMPs of the Murmu tribal community residing in Rajshahi district [87]; bitter, to increase appetite, piles, respiratory tract disorders, pain, gastrointestinal disorders, to increase sperm, vomiting tendency, cough, obesity, jaundice by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; uterine inversion by TMPs of the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe in Rajbari district [89]; jaundice by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; having trouble during urination, passing of blood during urination by a Tonchongya tribal healer of Rangamati district [91]; jaundice by a FMP practicing among tea garden workers in Sreemangal, Maulvibazar district [92]; asthma by a Garo TMP practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; rabies, stomach pain, cough, pneumonia by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; jaundice by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; male infertility, impotency by TMPs of the Nag clan of the Rai Ghatual tribe in Moulvibazar district [96].

Adhatoda vasica Nees
Cough, pneumonia, asthma by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; respiratory problems by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; coughs, asthma, bleeding from piles in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; anthelmintic, cough, sedative, sprain by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; cough by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; coughs and pain in humans, any type of porcine diseases by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; pain, cold, asthma, wounds, cough, mucus by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; rabies, pneumonia, jaundice by FMPs in villages by the Ghaghot River of Rangpur district [48]; antidote to poisoning, bronchitis, malaria, skin eruption, astringent in humans, cold in cattle by FMPs in villages by the Bangali River of Bogradistrict [48]; fever, cold, coughs by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50];cough, asthma, menstrual problems, jaundice, hepatitis B by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; asthma by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; leucorrhea, chronic respiratory disorders, coughs by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; whooping cough by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; severe fever with mucus by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53];chronic asthma, leprosy by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; respiratory difficulties, asthma by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; coughs and mucus by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; cold, coughs, fever, ear lobe infection by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; mucus, coughs by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; coughs, mucus, fever, tuberculosis, passing of blood through the mouth due to lung disorders by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; leprosy, allergy by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; fever, pneumonia, mucus, helminthiasis by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; bone fracture, to increase appetite by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; coughs by FMP of Jhenidah district [66]; coughs by the tribal healers of Gor tribe of Sylhet district [67]; dry cough by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; tuberculosis by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; coughs in children by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; coughs by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; helminthiasis, diarrhea and constipation by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; coughs, asthma by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; tuberculosis by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81]; coughs, biliary problems (bile turns the color of blood), frequent thirsts, respiratory problems, fever, vomiting tendency, diabetes, leprosy, tuberculosis by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; coughs by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; coughs by TMPs of the Pankho tribe of Bilaichari Union,  [32]; to remove odor from sweat, incoherency or insanity, acidity, ear and eye diseases by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; digestive aid by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; blood dysentery, constipation, to increase memory, to prevent stomach upsets by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, constipation, stomach pain by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; dysentery, to remove odor of sweat, vomiting in children by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; acne by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; chronic dysentery, dandruff by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; dysentery, to keep stomach cool by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; blood dysentery by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; reduced sexual desire in humans by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; snake bite, stomach disorders by FMP from Jhenaidah district [66]; chronic dysentery, burning sensations in the body, heart palpitations by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; indigestion, loss of appetite by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; dysentery by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; to keep head cool, sprain, fracture by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; chronic dysentery, constipation, indigestion by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; sedative by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; indigestion, piles, constipation, respiratory problem, inflammation, poisonous insect or snake bites, heart palpitations, fever, c learing of bowels by the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts region [76]; to keep body cool, diarrhoea, dysentery, constipation, astringent, repeat fevers, contagious fevers, frequent urination (diabetes) by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; acidity, skin allery, excessive sexual desire, carminative, coughs, astringent by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; severe pain, whitish discharge from vagina, hair loss, gastric problems by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; constipation by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; sexual disorder in males, to increase attraction in a female for a male by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; rheumatism, insect repellent, flatulency by TMPs of the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district [104]; jaundice, indigestion by TMPs of the Murmu tribal community residing in Rajshahi district [87]; to increase digestive  [88]; dysentery, diarrhea by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; stomach pain, constipation, memory enhancer by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; jaundice, asthma by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; stomach disorders, watery stool, loss of appetite by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; diarrhea by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; spermatorrhea, insomnia by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; anti-inflammatory, constipation, blood dysentery, diabetes by TMPs of Santal tribe of Rangpur district [107].
Aloe barbadensis Mill. Headache, hot feeling in head, and stomach disorders in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; liver disorders and bloating in Faridpur district [40]; constipation, rheumatism, digestive aid by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; burns due to fire, energizer, low semen density, to increase eyesight, spermatorrhea, constipation, to improve texture of skin in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; ecbolic, irregular menstruation, wound, appetizer, blood dysentery by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43] [52]; hoarseness of voice, throat pain by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; stoppage of urination and defecation, toothache, bleeding from gums by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; red color of urine by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; waist pain by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; dysentery, sexual stimulant by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; low semen density by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; frequent ejaculation of sperm along with blood by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; flatulence, dysentery by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; irregular whitish discharge in urine of women  [109]; to increase lactation in cows by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; urine coming out in small drops in breast-fed infants because of kidney stones arising from problems in mother's milk by TMPs of the Hodi tribe in Sherpur district [112].
Andrographis paniculata Nees Fever and helminthiasis in Faridpur district, Bangladesh [40]; liver diseases, helminthiasis in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; emetic, anthelmintic, sexual disorders by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; long-term fever, any type of severe body pain by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; fever, headache, vertigo by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; liver diseases by FMPs of Feni district [47]; fever by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; liver disorders, helminthiasis, acidity by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; stomach and heart disorders by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; jaundice, malaria, blood purifier, allergy by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; fever, pneumonia, mucus, helminthiasis by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; allergy, chronic fever by FMP of Jhenidah district [66]; constipation, stomach pain by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; fever, helminthiasis by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; diabetes, stomach pain by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; coughs, cold by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; helminthiasis, fever by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; fever, constipation by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; stomach disorders, to improve digestion, bloating with burning sensations in chest by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; common cold, uncomplicated sinusitis, pharyngotonsillitis, lower urinary tract infections, acute diarrhea, bacillary dysentery, bronchitis, carbuncles, colitis, cough, dyspepsia, fever, hepatitis, malaria, mouth ulcers, sores, tuberculosis, venomous snake bite, colic, otitis media, vaginitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, chicken pox, eczema, burns by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; cold, coughs, fever by TMPs of the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe in Rajbari district [89]; fever arising suddenly during the night, toothache, skin infections by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; fever by a Chakma tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district; rheumatic problems, gastric problems by a Kush tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; fever, loss of appetite by TMPs of the Nag clan of the Rai Ghatual tribe in Moulvibazar district [96]; jaundice, helminthiasis by TMPs of Chakma tribe of Rangapanir Chara Area in Khagrachaari district [34]; fever, malarial fever by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; malaria by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; diabetes by TMPs of the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district [104]; anthelmintic, dysentery, rectal diseases, cough, cold, mucus, fever by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; indigestion in Rampal sub-district of Bagerhat district [113].  [52]; impotency in males, to increase libido by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; hypertension, to increase lactation in nursing mother by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; gonorrhea, spermatorrhea, erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, frequent urge for urination but only 1-2 drops of urine coming out each time by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; weakness, diabetes, urinary problems by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; sexual weakness, physical weakness by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; night blindness, blood dysentery, filariasis by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; used as preventive medicine against spermatorrhea and cardiovascular disorders as well as to raise body resistance against diseases and to keep the body healthy and mind contented by FMP of Jhenidah district [66]; body pain, leucorrhea by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; to increase lactation by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; physical weakness by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; tuberculosis by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; asthma during winter, all food tasting bitter, nutritive, to increase intelligence, to maintain good eyes, to increase sperm, to increase lactation, to increase strength, diarrhoea by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; burning sensations during urination, weakness by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; asthma, leucorrhea by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; swelling or enlargement of testicles by TMPs of the Pankho tribe of Bilaichari Union, Rangamati district [86]; asthma during winter, bitter taste in mouth, nutritive, to increase intelligence, to maintain good eyes, to increase sperm, to increase lactation, to increase strength, diarrhea, hyperacidity by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; snake bite by TMPs of the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe in Rajbari district [89]; physical weakness by a Kush tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district; physical weakness by a Garo tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; asthma, cough, cold by TMPs of Tonchongya tribe of Roangchaari Upazila in Bandarban district [99]; all diseases by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; stone lodged in penis, diabetes by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110].

Anthocephalus chinensis
Averrhoa carambola L. Diarrhea, vomiting, influenza by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; coughs and mucus in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; eczema, digestive aid, to keep body cool by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; to stop bleeding, bone fractures in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; tonic, appetizer by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi  [58]; frequent coughs by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; constipation by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; sperm incapable of being fertilized, constipation, coughs, flatulency by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; jaundice by a FMP practicing among tea garden workers in Sreemangal, Maulvibazar district [92]; liver diseases, fever, jaundice by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105].  [110]; abscess by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; to strengthen base of tooth, acne by a FMP of Savar in Table 7 Other reported ethnomedicinal uses of the plants in Bangladesh (Continued)

Azadirachta indica
Dhaka district [114]; scabies, itches by TMPs of the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe of Thanchi sub-district in Bandarban district [115]; infections of the tooth by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116]; cuts and wounds, allergy, premature graying of hair by TMPs of Khasia tribe in several sub-districts in Sylhet district [117].
Bombax ceiba L. Urinary calculus, loss of libido by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; low semen density in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; loss of libido in Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; stoppage of urination, debility, sexual weakness, to increase semen by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; acne, spermatorrhea, leucorrhea, presence of blood in vomit or bleeding through nose due to liver disorders, blood clotting problems or tuberculosis in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; tonic, sexual disorders, edema by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; to increase sexual activity by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; debility, to increase growth by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; gonorrhea by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46] [104]; to increase sperm count by Christians living in Mirzapur village of Dinajpur ditrict, Bangladesh [108]; to increase sperm count by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; gonorrhea, acne by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; having difficulties in urinating by TMPs of Mro community of Gazalia Union in Bandarbans district [118].
Carica papaya L. Dysentery, ringworm by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; blood with cough, eczema, piles by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; fever, blood dysentery by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; digestive aid, to increase strength, respiratory problems, diabetes by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; indigestion, bloating, stomach ache, jaundice, toothache, headache, kidney stones by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; piles by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; burning sensations and pain in the stomach, loss of appetite, indigestion by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; to maintain healthy liver by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; jaundice, diabetes by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; spleen enlargement, eczema, loss of appetite, indigestion, constipation by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; dengue fever by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; jaundice, to keep stomach cool by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; hematemesis, piles, liver, spleen and hepatic impairment, constipation by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; jaundice by the Teli   [108]; body poisoning, gall bladder problems, constipation by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110].
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Dysentery and intestinal pain by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; weakness in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; dysentery in Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; dysentery and blood dysentery in Faridpur district [ [55]; stomach pain, swelling (edema) in hands or legs by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; flatulence, indigestion, hair loss by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; to increase memory by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; stomach pain, dysentery by TMPs of the Tudu sub-clan of the Santal tribe in Joypurhat district [62]; bloating, diarrhea, dysentery, to increase memory by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; dysentery by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; dysentery, intestinal dysfunction by the tribal healers of Gor tribe of Sylhet district; to increase energy by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; headache, stuttering in children by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; dysentery, blood dysentery by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; dysentery, abdominal pain by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; dysentery, to enhance memory by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; diarrhea, dysentery, stomach pain by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; ulcer by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; lack of breast milk following childbirth by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; gastric disorder, stomach pain, diarrhea, blood dysentery, fever, cough by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; fever, pain by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81]; jaundice, dysentery by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; stomach pain by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; stomach pain in children, dysentery by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; rheumatic problems, gastric problems by a Kush tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; bone fracture by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; helminthiasis, stomach ache by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; loss of appetite, diarrhea by TMPs of the Nag clan of the Rai Ghatual tribe in Moulvibazar district [96]; diarrhoea, gastric problems by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; diarrhea, dysentery by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe of Maulvibazar district [100]; abdominal pain, gastric trouble by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; dysentery by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; stomach disorders by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; jaundice by TMPs of the Hodi tribe in Sherpur district [112]; anemia by TMPs of Mro community of Gazalia Union in Bandarbans district [118].  Magura district [80]; excessive sexual desire, coughs, flatulence, piles, bloating, loss of appetite, sexual disorder by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; coughs, bloating, appetite stimulant, biliary disorders, piles by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; colic in Paikgacha sub-district of Khulna district [113].
Cinnamomum verum J. Presl. diabetes by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; bone fracture, asthma, uterine problems by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [55]; infertility in woman by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; stomach pain, puerperal fever, rheumatic pain, stomach pain by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; any type of cancer by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; pain by TMPs of the Nag clan of the Rai Ghatual tribe in Moulvibazar district [96]; to strengthen stomach by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; to increase sperm count, biliary disorders, rheumatism by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111].
Cissus quadrangularis L. Wounds and sprains by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; bone fracture in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; tonic, sprain, sedative by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; bone fracture by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; bone fracture by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; rheumatic fever, joint pain by FMPs of Noakhali district, pain by FMPs of Feni district [47]; bone fracture by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; bone fracture by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; bone fracture by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; bone fracture by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; bone fracture, sprain by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; bone fracture in hand or leg by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; bone fracture by FMPs of two villages in Natore district [31]; bone fracture in hands or legs by FMP from Jhenaidah district [66]; bone fracture by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; bone fracture in hands or legs by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73].bone fracture by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; bone fracture by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; bone fracture by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; bone fracture by TMPs of the Murmu tribal community residing in Rajshahi district [87]; bone fracture by TMPs of the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe in Rajbari district [89]; bone fracture by FMPs of Dinajpur district [97]; bone fracture by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; bone fracture by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; sprain in hand or leg constipation by a Kush TMP practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [109]; bone fracture by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; bone fractures, pain due to fractures by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; indigestion in Paikgacha sub-district of Khulna district [113]; Citrus acida Pers. Dandruff, vomiting by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; loss of appetite, indigestion, vomiting tendency, acne, dandruff by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; facial scars and spots, vitamin C deficiency by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81]; helminthiasis, abdominal discomfort, to increase appetite, flatulence, coughs, piles by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; carminative, gall bladder diseases by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; to keep head cool, restless feeling by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111].
Citrus grandis Hassk. Appetite stimulant, vomiting, fever by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; aphrodisiac by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; to increase appetite, blood purifier, fever by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; loss of appetite, vomiting, fever by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; fever by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; to increase strength, carminative, indigestion by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; deformities in head of young children by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111].
Coccinia cordifolia (L.) Cogn. Total paralysis or numbness of body, burning sensations in head or soles of feet by FMPs of two villages in Rajshahi district [38]; burning sensations during urination, diabetes by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; burning sensations in the body, blood dysentery, scabies, leucoderma, diabetes in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; coughs, diabetes, dysentery, emetic, burn by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; mental disease, diabetes by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; hypertension, diabetes by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; diabetes by FMPs of Feni district [47]; sunstroke, diabetes by FMPs in villages by the Bangali River of Bogra district [48]; headache by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; diabetes, to keep head cool, dysentery, skin diseases, burning sensations in hands or feet by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; hematemesis, loss of appetite, diabetes, flatulency by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; typhoid, eczema, leucoderma, lesion on tongue by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; diabetes, jaundice by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; diabetes, debility, to keep head cool, burning sensations in the body by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; dysentery, burns by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; diabetes, stomach pain by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; diarrhea, dysentery by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; menstrual problems like burning sensations during urination, frequent urination, diabetes by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; diabetes, loss of appetite, flatulence by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; burning sensations in the body, diabetes by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; moisturizer for dry skin by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; blood purifier, loss of appetite, diabetes, injury, sprains by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; coughs, bloating by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; diabetes, intestinal dysfunction by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; diabetes, fever by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; diabetes by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; abscess by TMPs of Kole and Rai tribes of Rajshahi and Nawabganj districts [73]; diabetes, dysentery, flatulence, to keep stomach in good condition by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; diabetes, swellings, diarrhoea, blood purifier, loss of appetite, indigestion by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81]; to keep head cool, diabetes, dysentery, jaundice by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; diabetes by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; diabetes, pain by TMPs of the Murmu tribal community residing in Rajshahi district [87]; skin disease, tumors, headache, pseudo-tumors,  [88]; diabetes by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; diabetes, dizziness by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; dysentery, oral lesions by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; to keep head cool, burning sensations in hands or feet, diabetes by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; diabetes, fever, jaundice by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; diabetes by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; headache, lesions on tongue by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106];diabetes by Christians living in Mirzapur village of Dinajpur ditrict, Bangladesh [108]; diabetes, edema, eye diseases by FMPs of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [109]; whitish discharge in urine of men by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; mental depression, disability to work, blood dysentery, body pain by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; rheumatic pain, sciatica by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116]; jaundice, diabetes by TMPs of Khasia tribe in several sub-districts in Sylhet district [117]; baldness, diabetes, sunstroke, scar by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Cuts and wounds by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; severe jaundice, digestive aid, constipation in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; colic, indigestion by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; astringent, carminative, scar, tumor, infertility in male or female by FMPs in villages by the Bangali River of Bogra district [48]; rheumatic pain, paralysis by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; rheumatic pain, paralysis by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; severe headache by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; cuts and wounds to stop bleeding, blood purifier, to strengthen bones by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; diabetes by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe of Maulvibazar district [100]; anemia, malnutrition by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; rheumatic pain by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; infections, whitish or darkish pathes of skin on face, infertility by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; piles, diarrhea, dysentery, wound by TMPs of Santal tribe of Rangpur district [107]; prolapse of uterus by TMPs of the Hodi tribe in Sherpur district [112]; astringent, dermatitis, bloating, tiger bite, helminthiasis, emetic by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Sexual diseases by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19];itches in Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; gastrointestinal disorders, body pain by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; jaundice, liver diseases, uterus and liver pain in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; alopecia, acne, glassiness of skin by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; jaundice, helminthiasis by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; carminative by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; itches by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [49]; fever, jaundice, to maintain good health, to keep body cool by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; stoppage of urination by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; jaundice by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; female infertility, fever by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; gastric troubles by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; anthrax in cattle, jaundice by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; jaundice by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; sexual stimulant by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; fever, body pain, rheumatic pain, sex stimulant by the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts region [76]; excessive bleeding following menstruation by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; edema, body ache, sexual stimulant, maintain good hepatic functions, jaundice by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; hair loss by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; jaundice by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; diabetes by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; to stop bleeding from wounds, jaundice by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; jaundice by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; aphrodisiac, diabetes by TMPs of Tonchongya tribe of Roangchaari Upazila in Bandarban district [99]; abdominal pain, helminthiasis, skin diseases by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; fever, jaundice by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; low sperm count, jaundice by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; heart disorders by Christians living in Mirzapur village of Dinajpur ditrict, Bangladesh [108]; indigestion in Rampal sub-district of Bagerhat district [113].
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Cuts and wounds by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19];yellowish coloration of urine, bleeding from cuts and wounds in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; to stop bleeding in Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; cuts and wounds, infections by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; to stop bleeding in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; leucorrhea, gonorrhea, diabetes, stop bleeding, infertility by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; to stop bleeding by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; piles by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; astringent, tonsillitis, dermatitis, inflammation, laxative by FMPs in villages by the Bangali River of Bogra district [48]; external wound, kidney and gall bladder stones by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; to stop bleeding by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [49]; chronic dysentery, to keep body healthy, to stop bleeding by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; skin diseases, less urination by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; wounds, acne by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; excessive bleeding from the ovary, anemia, vomiting, stomach pain, infection of the uterus by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; sprain, cuts and wounds by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; cuts and wounds, infected wounds by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; whitish discharge in urine of women, gastric p[roblems, sexual weakness, bleeding from external cuts and wounds by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; blood dysentery by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; infections, bleeding while pregnant by FMPs of Chuadanga district [66]; headache, infection, erectile dysfunction by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; lesions on tongue by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; to stop bleeding by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; vomiting by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; coughs, cuts and wounds by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; loss of libido, provides a feeling of satisfaction, biliary/hepatic disorders, thirst, vomiting, burning sensations in the body, blood purifier, coughs, fainting, loss of appetite by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; bleeding from external cuts and wounds by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; stomach infections, infections of uterus, to stop bleeding from external cuts and wounds by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; to stop bleeding by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; excessive bleeding during menstruation by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; cuts and wounds by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; jaundice by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; chicken pox by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; tonsillitis, astringent, snake bite, dog bite by TMPs of Santal tribe of Rangpur district [107]; diabetes by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; bleeding through the nose and mouth and passing of blood with urine by TMPs of the Hodi tribe in Sherpur district [112]; physical weakness by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116];.
Datura metel L. Mental disorders by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; pain in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; paralysis in Faridpur district [40]; body ache by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; head lice, pain and swelling in breasts of females in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; rheumatoid arthritis, anthelmintic, carminative, acne, impotency, antidote to poison by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; joint pain, pain in leg by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; head lice infestation by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; dog bite, helminthiasis by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; swelling and pain, excessive breathing, to enlarge pupil of eye, swelling of gums and base of ears, breast pain by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat, Kushtia district [51]; body pain by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; respiratory difficulties by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; joint pain by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; skin diseases, dandruff by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; cuts and wounds (to stop bleeding) by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; dog bite, helminthiasis, elephantiasis by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; body irritation by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; mucus, pain, insanity by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; rheumatism by FMP from Jhenaidah district [66]; intestinal dysfunction, wounds, paralysis by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; whole body pain by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; paralysis by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; pus in ears by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; abscess by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; throat pain in children by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; sudden insanity by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; antidote to poisoning by FMPs of Terbaria and Babla villages in Tangail district [81];]; pain, ear ache, paralysis by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; being possessed by 'ghosts' by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; allergy, asthma by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; abscess, shrinking of pupils in the eyes, swelling of ear lobes by a FMP practicing among tea garden workers in Sreemangal, Maulvibazar district [92]; scabies, eczema, allergy by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; cough, headache, dizziness, bloating by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; asthma, pain in eyes, insanity by Christians living in Mirzapur village of Dinajpur ditrict, Bangladesh [108]; joint pain by TMPs of the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe of Thanchi sub-district in Bandarban district [115]; hypotonic, helminthiasis, snake bite, sedative, anti-spas modic, burn by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf. To increase sexual energy by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67].
Dillenia indica L. Sex stimulant by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; dysentery by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; loss of appetite, to prevent stomach upsets, diarrhea, dysentery by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; dysentery, sexually transmitted diseases by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; indigestion, loss of appetite by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; to enhance digestion by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; edema, abscess, appetite stimulant by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; hydrocele, contraceptive by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; diarrhea by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102].
To increase taste, jaundice, gastric problems, indigestion by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; tooth pain in Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [39]; loss of appetite in Faridpur district [40]; appetite stimulant, indigestion by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; burning sensations in urinary tract, leucorrhea, hair loss, reduce graying of hair in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; alopecia, appetizer by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; loss of hair, to stop vomiting by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; hair loss, indigestion, debility by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; tooth pain by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [49]; to increase appetite, skin diseases, fever, to increase strength, burning sensations during urination, hair loss, graying of hair by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; to prevent hair loss, respiratory tract disorders, hepatic disorders, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; to stimulate appetite by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; loss of hair, irritation during urination by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; stomach disorders, flatulence, indigestion by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; haemorrhoids, gastrointestinal disorders, ulcer, gastric pain by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; blood purifier, anemia, hair loss, coughs, spleen disorders, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; graying of hair by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; hair loss by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; to increase sexual strength, to improve appetite by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; jaundice, to keep head cool, hair loss, graying of hair by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; blood dysentery by a FMP of Jhalokathi in Barisal district [65]; intestinal dysfunction, blood purifier by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; headache, conjunctivitis by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; loss of appetite by a FMP of a village in Faridpur district [40]; mucus by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; fever by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; diabetes, hair loss, dandruff, to strengthen hair by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; hair loss, blood purifier by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; to maintain good health by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; fever, skin problems, loss of appetite, poisonous bites of animals or insects, diabetes by the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts region [76]; long-term fever, loss of appetite, sexual stimulant by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; to increase libido by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; biliary problem, alleviation of respiratory, stomach or hepatic problem, diabetes, fatigue, thirst, burning sensations in body especially in palms of hands or soles of feet, vomiting tendency, insanity by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; stomach troubles, gastric problems by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; anemia by TMPs of the Pankho tribe of Bilaichari Union, Rangamati district [86]; to increase strength, to clear urine by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; vaginitis, burning sensations by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88loss of sensitivity in skin, chronic mucus, continuous sneezing with running water from nose, loss of sensitivity in skin due to allergy, small pustules on skin of children by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; aphrodisiac, energizer, fever, body ache by TMPs of Tonchongya tribe of Roangchaari Upazila in Bandarban district [99]; cardiovascular disorders by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; bleeding from gums, loss of appetite, headache, paralysis by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; appetizer, gonorrhoea, toothache, itch by FMPs of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [109]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; mucus, biliary disorders, loss of appetite, prevent hair loss by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, weakness of heart, hysteria, osteoporosis by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116]; anemia by TMPs of Mro community of Gazalia Union in Bandarbans district [118]; fistula, vitamin C deficiency, lack of appetite, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, cold by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].

Feronia limonia Swingle
To enhance digestion by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74].
Ficus racemosa L. Diabetes by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; dysentery by FMPs of two villages in Rajshahi district [38]; coughs, blood dysentery by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; 'prodor' disease (any disease prior to, during or following menstruation) in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; stomach ache by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; to keep healthy, diabetes by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; diabetes by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; dysentery by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; pimples, eczema, bleeding due to external cuts and wounds, burning sensations during urination by FMPs of seven villages in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district [54]; coughs, mucus, diarrhea, dysentery, debility by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; loss of sexual desire, roughness of skin, biliary disorders, coughs, blood purifier, change of color of skin as in jaundice, acne, astringent by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; weakness, eye diseases, diabetes by TMPs of Bongshi tribe in Tangail district [82]; jaundice by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; to induce urination, to increase strength, gonorrhea, urethritis, to increase sexual desire, roughness of skin, biliary disorders, coughs, blood purifier, change of color of skin as in jaundice, acne, astringent by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; diabetes by a Chakma tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district; [93]; diabetes by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; headache, small pox, flatulence, cancer, dermatitis, burn by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Dysentery, debility by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; leucorrhea in two villages of Rajshahi district [38]; dysentery by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; gonorrhoea, constipation, sex stimulant, hematemesis, amenorrhea in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; appetizer, anti-hemorrhagic by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; lack of calcium by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; stomach upsets and dysentery by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; loss of appetite by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [49]; menstrual irregularities by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; to improve hair quality, coughs, flatulency by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; leucorrhea, passing of blood with urine in women, badhok disease (infertility in women due to problem in uterus) by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; menstrual difficulties by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; irregular menstruation, burns, blood dysentery by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; prolonged menstruation by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; diarrhea, infections on palm of hand by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; hair loss by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; general weakness, debility by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [61]; excessive bleeding, leucorrhea by TMPs of the Tudu sub-clan of the Santal tribe in Joypurhat district [62]; leucorrhea by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; infertility by FMP from Jhenaidah district [66]; premature ejaculation by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; tongue lesions, conjunctivitis, puerperal fever by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; dysentery in cattle, hair loss in humans by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; injury by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; blood dysentery by FMPs and TMPs in the vicinity of Lawachara Forest Reserve, Moulvibazar district [72]; to induce vomiting, irregular menstruation by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; cataract by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; conjunctivitis, helminthiasis, viral fever, any fever, rheumatic pain, diabetes by the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts region [76]; puerperal fever by the Santal tribe residing in Rajshahi district [77]; infertility in females, to prevent death of infant following birth by TMPs of Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [85]; burning sensations during urination by a Chakma TMP practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district; dysentery by a Garo TMP practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; hair loss, excessive graying of hair, loss of brightness in hair by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; burning sensations during urination, yellowish color of urine by TMPs of the Nag clan of the Rai Ghatual tribe in Moulvibazar district [96]; frequent urination by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; dysentery by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; being touched by 'evil wind' by TMPs of the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district [104]; blood dysentery by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; menstrual disorders by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; premature ejaculation by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111].  [51]; to keep head cool, burning sensations in hands, feet, head or body by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; jaundice, diarrhea, skin diseases by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; constipation by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; antidote to poisoning, chicken pox by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; gonorrhea, antidote to poisoning, to increase milk of nursing mother, low sperm count, low semen volume by FMPs of Bhola district [64]; cuts and wounds by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; gonorrhea, low sperm count by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; snake bite, haemorrhoids, indigestion, burns by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob. To stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; skin diseases by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; gastric pain, ulcer, fresh wounds and cuts by the Garo tribe inhabiting the Madhupur forest region of Bangladesh [46]; dysentery, gastric ulcer, diabetes, cuts and wounds to stop bleeding by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; diabetes, skin disorder by FMPs in villages by the Bangali River of Bogra district [48]; to provide a cooling effect by FMPs of Balidha village, Jessore district [50]; cuts and wounds (to stop bleeding) by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; cuts and wounds by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; gastric troubles by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; blood dysentery, blood coming out of anus by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [60]; bleeding from external cuts and wounds by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; gastric problems by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; gastric problems by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; stop bleeding from wounds, astringent, chest pain after eating, acidity, dysentery by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; cuts and wounds by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; bleeding from external cuts and wounds by TMPs of Naik clan of Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [84]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; cuts, wounds, stomach ache by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; bloating, stomach pain, helminthiasis, sprain, fracture by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district, Dhaka district [97]; cuts and wounds, ulcer by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; cuts and wounds, dengue fever by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [111]; bleeding from external cuts and  [114]; to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by TMPs of Khasia tribe in several sub-districts in Sylhet district [117].
Mimosa pudica L. Gynecological problems, sex stimulant by the Garo tribe living in Netrakona district [19]; pain in body, head and teeth by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; dental pain, gingivitis in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; impotency, appetizer, spleen enlargement by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; jaundice by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; rheumatic pain by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; loss of urinary control by FMPs in villages by the Padma River of Rajshahi district [48]; to increase sexual power, to expedite delivery, piles, wounds, chronic dysentery, prevent decaying of gums, pus in ears by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; coughs, gall bladder disorders, hematemesis by FMPs of Shetabganj village, Dinajpur district [32]; tooth diseases by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; jaundice, skin diseases by FMPs of a village in Narayanganj district [55]; leg infections especially between the fingers, conjunctivitis, burning sensations in eyes, to expedite delivery by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; passing of blood during urination, burning sensations in urinary tract by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; to increase sexual strength, jaundice by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; impotency, appetizer, spleen enlargement by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; piles by the TMPs of the Rai Clan of the Tipra tribe of Sylhet Division [68]; burning sensations in hands or feet by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; burning sensations in hands or feet by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; eczema, scabies, abscesses by the Marma tribe living in Naikhongchhari, Bandarban district [75]; impotency, aphrodisiac, coughs, gall bladder problems, vaginitis by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; problems during childbirth by a FMP practicing among tea garden workers in Sreemangal, Maulvibazar district [92]; jaundice by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; rheumatism, insect repellent by TMPs of the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district [104]; to expedite delivery by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; plague, edema, elephantiasis, epilepsy by Christians living in Mirzapur village of Dinajpur      heart disorders, fluttering of heart by TMPs of the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [90]; any type of heart disorders by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; burning sensations during urination, hypertension, asthma by folk herbalists in Comilla district [94]; abnormal rhythms of heart by FMPs of Barisal Town, Barisal district [98]; sex stimulant by TMPs of Chakma tribe of Rangapanir Chara Area in Khagrachaari district [34]; heart diseases by TMPs of the Manipuri tribe in Kamalganj Upazila, Moulvibazar district [101]; cardiovascular disorders, whitish discharge during urination, burning sensations during urination, puerperal fever by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; chest pain due to heart disorders, burning sensations during urination, bone fracture by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; knee and waist pain by TMPs of the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district [104]; heart disorders, watery eyes by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; pain due to injury, diabetes by a FMP of Jamalpur district [106]; hypertension, anemia, leprosy by FMPs of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [109]; depression on both sides of the head and chest and appearance of yellow color in palm of hands and eyes by TMPs of the Hodi tribe in Sherpur district [112]; osteoporosis by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116]; heart disease, gynaecological disorders, central nervous system stimulant, leprosy, gonorrhea by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [120].
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Coughs, to increase strength, appetite stimulant, to increase eye sight by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; stimulant, impotency by FMPs of three villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [43]; impotency, coughs, indigestion by FMPs of Dinajpur district [45]; tonic, diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, breathing problems, hair tonic, joint pain by FMPs of Noakhali district [47]; asthma, allergy, to maintain heart, lungs and liver in good condition by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village, Jamalpur district [33]; to cure any disease by FMPs of Vitbilia village in Pabna district [52]; blood purifier, appetite stimulant by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [53]; stomach disorders, flatulence, indigestion by a FMP of Gachabari village in Tangail district [56]; abscess, burning sensations on skin, haemorrhoids by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; coughs, spleen disorders, to clear bowels, flatulence, dysentery by FMPs of three villages in Kurigram district [58]; helminthiasis, loss of hair by the tribal healers of Oraon tribe of Sylhet district [67]; jaundice by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; diabetes by a Pahan TMP in Dinajpur district [71]; to keep healthy by FMPs of three areas in Pirojpur district [74]; long-term fever, loss of appetite, sex stimulant by the Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh [78]; to increase libido, acidity by FMPs of Badarganj and Shekhertek villages in Rangpur district [79]; astringent, coughs, biliary disorders, good for eyes and hair, helminthiasis, breaking down of voice, thirst, vomiting tendency, rheumatism by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur Upazilla, Magura district [80]; gastric problems by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [83]; constipation by TMPs of Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [59]; anemia by TMPs of the Pankho tribe of Bilaichari Union, Rangamati district [86]; blood purifier by a FMP practicing among tea garden workers in Sreemangal, Maulvibazar district [92]; dysentery, blood dysentery, irritable bowel syndrome, gastric problems, indigestion by a Chakma tribal practitioner practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district; constipation by a Kush TMP practicing among Garo and Kush tribes in Sherpur district [93]; cough, mucus, asthma by TMPs of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe of Mirsharai area, Chittagong district [95]; aphrodisiac, energizer, fever, body ache by TMPs of Tonchongya tribe of Roangchaari Upazila in Bandarban district [99]; fever witn shivering, asthma by TMPs of the Bauri tribal community of Moulvibazar district [102]; bleeding from gums, loss of appetite, headache, paralysis by a TMP of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district [103]; skin diseases, physical weakness by a FMP of Sreemangal Upazila in Maulvibazar district [105]; constipation, sexual diseases by FMPs of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [109]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [110]; diabetes, low density of semen, kidney problems, cardiovascular disorders, weakness of heart, hysteria, osteoporosis by a TMP of the Sardar (Dhangor) community in Chuadanga district [116].

Conclusion
The three communities, namely Garo, Hajong and Bangalee of Garo Hills heavily depend on the ethnopharmacological remedies for primary health care, especially fever, cold, coughs, headache, body pain, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, indigestion, wounds, boils, skin diseases, helminthiasis, and urinary troubles. One of the important finding from this study reveals that the THPs never considered the importance of the preservation and documentation of their knowledge. The focus group discussion and personal interviews reflects the reluctance of the young generation towards their native ethnobotanical practice. The present study provides an overview of the medicinal plant usage in Durgapur Garo Hills area. The current investigation identified a total of 71 plant species used for 82 different ailments, which can be further subdivided in 16 major ailment categories. Extensive use of plants to manage dermatological (25 species) and gastrointestinal disorders (36 species) signifies that these two diseases are quite widespread in the study area. Unplanned urbanisation is adversely affecting the natural habitat of numerous plant species with important medicinal values. Inclination towards modernisation is creating a negative attitude towards the age old practice of ethnobotanical medicine, whereas, prescribing allopathic medicine by non-professionals is putting the health system at risk. Our present investigation created positive impact especially on the local people who expressed their interest after learning the fact that there is sufficient scientific basis of the healing power of the plants. This will help in developing public awareness towards the conservation of the traditional knowledge as well as to preserve the plant diversity for the future generation. This is a necessity because a number of uses of plant species for medicinal purposes are unique to this study and may contribute to further research and development of novel drugs.  [19]; chicken pox, measles by FMPs of Sylhet Division, Bangladesh [41]; dysentery with blood and mucus in Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [42]; piles, tooth problem by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district of Comilla district [44]; fever, flatulence, diarrhea by tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [57]; anti-emetic, headache by FMPs of two villages in Bagerhat district [88]; hypertension, piles, dysentery, blood dysentery by TMPs of 15 clans of the Garo tribe of Madhupur, Tangail district [63]; fever by TMPs of two Marma tribal communities in two villages of Khagrachhari district [69]; fever by TMPs and FMPs practicing within a Khasia tribal community in Jaflong area, Sylhet district [70]; carminative, anorexia, diabetes, dermatitis, eye diseases by TMPs of Santal tribe of Rangpur district [107]; indigestion in Paikgacha sub-district of Khulna district [113].