- Research
- Open access
- Published:
Traditional lore on the healing effects of therapeutic plants used by the local communities around Simien Mountains National Park, northwestern Ethiopia
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume 20, Article number: 43 (2024)
Abstract
Background
Simien Mountain National Park is a world heritage site with spectacular landscapes and rich in floral diversity. Exploring the plethora of conventional wisdom regarding therapeutic flora for sustainable use and drug development is a timely endeavor. Thus, the present study was aimed at investigating therapeutic plant uses and conservation practices by the local communities dwelling in the vicinity of the Park.
Methods
Eighty randomly selected general informants and 20 purposefully selected key informants were used to collect the traditional lore from 10 purposefully selected kebeles that border the Park. Data were collected using face-to-face interviews, guided field walks, group discussions and market surveys. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the basic information collected from the informants. An independent sample t test was computed to compare the knowledge variations among different informant groups. Clustering and ranking techniques were employed to validate traditional wisdom of informants.
Results
Significant differences in traditional wisdom (P < 0.05) were observed only between general and key informants. Hundred thirteen therapeutic plant species belonging to 56 families were recorded. Asteraceae was the most species-rich family (10%). The majority of therapeutic species were collected from the wild (77%). Herbs and roots were the most preferred habit (47%) and plant parts (37%) for remedy preparation, respectively. Pounding was the most common preparation method (50.1%). The most frequently practiced route of administration was the oral route (48.1%). The highest Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) value (84%) was recorded for respiratory and febrile illnesses. Rumex nepalensis was the most preferred for the treatment of wounds, and Olea europaea subsp cuspidata was the first-ranked multipurpose plant.
Conclusion
The Park is rich in therapeutic species serving as a refuge for many endemic and endangered species associated with the local community rich medicinal traditional lore. Erosion of therapeutic plants, verbal transfer of the traditional wisdom and young generation negligence in acquiring traditional lore led to the deterioration of the long tradition of using therapeutic plants for health care. Endangered multipurpose therapeutic plants like Echinops kebericho should get conservation priority. Therapeutic plants with the highest ICF and fidelity level could be candidates for drug development.
Introduction
Starting from the time immemorial, local communities in Africa exercise traditional medicine as the primary healthcare system over modern medicines due to its affordability, acceptability and easy access to traditional plants [1]. In East Africa, including Ethiopia, traditional medicine is the dominant and most popular system of health care, used by about 80% of the population [2]. Matching to this, Ethiopia harbors a great diversity of geology, land forms, soils and climate that makes it a floristically diverse nation [3] that favors medicinal plant growth and utilization. As a result, Ethiopians are largely relied on their natural environments for their basic needs and health care. Thus, use of medicinal plants for health care is the long tradition of the Ethiopian people.
However, the documented medicinal plants in the country are limited compared to the floral diversity and the existing multiethnic and cultural diversity of the people as well as the long history of using medicinal plant for health care [4]. On the other side, the indigenous knowledge is passed verbally from generation to generation that can be easily deleted from the mind. In addition, medicinal plants and the associated knowledge are being seriously depleted due to deforestation, environmental degradation and acculturation that have been taking place in the country for quite a long time [5, 6]. This could ultimately result in the weakening of primary healthcare services.
Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) and the surrounding areas are magnificent and spectacular land escapes. In honor of its exceptional biophysical features and unique combination of biodiversity with many endemic and endangered species, the park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1978 [7]. Taking its international significance into consideration, except for the traditional lore on therapeutic plant species, a great deal of information has been published about the park as it draws the attention of scholars from various fields [8,9,10,11,12,13,14].
However, the park, like other regions of the nation, is still challenged by several anthropologic factors, such as overgrazing, agricultural encroachment and selective removal of plant species (SMNP Office report, 2020). In addition, SMNP is much more sensitive and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change since the park is included in the afromontane and afroalpine ecosystems, which are exceptionally vulnerable to climate change. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and an increased frequency of extreme weather events are affecting the park's ecosystems, including the distribution and survival of plant and animal species. Though the communities around the park have a long tradition of using therapeutic plants for their health care, the loss of indigenous flora and therapeutic plants with the associated indigenous lore is, also, one of the major challenges facing the park. Before the accelerated ecological and cultural transformation totally distorted the physical entities and the associated knowledge base, scientific documentation of traditional lore with therapeutic plants was a timely endeavor. It was expected that SMNP, with its vast microhabitats caused by its extraordinary topographic variability, would call for new exploration and recording of therapeutic plants, which could be commendable for this work. Therefore, the objectives of the present work were: (a) to document the long tradition of using therapeutic plants for health care; (b) to assess major threats to therapeutic plants; (c) to document the traditional practices of conserving therapeutic plants; and (d) to identify novel practices regarding the use of therapeutic plants among the residents living in the vicinity of the park.
Materials and methods
Descriptions of the study area
The study was conducted in the vicinities of SMNP. SMNP is situated 857 km northwest of Addis Ababa, the capital of the nation. It was established in 1966 (SMNP Office report, 2020) and currently covers an area of 412 km2 [15]. It lies within five districts (Debark, Adiarkay, Janamora, Beyeda and Tellemit) and borders 42 kebeles stretching from 13° 06′ 44.09'' N to 13° 23′ 07.85'' N latitude and from 37° 51′26.36''E to 38° 29′ 27.59'' E longitude (Fig. 1).
The Park is the highest regions of the Ethiopian Plateau, extending from 2000 to over 4,550 m a.s.l., i.e., Ras Dejen Mount, Ethiopia's highest peak point [16]. The park is an area of great diversity and scenic beauty and referred to as the “roof of Africa.” The unique geological formation of the mountains with the extensive erosion of the basaltic layers over a long period of time led to the formation of different land forms that make up the spectacular landscape of SMNP (Fig. 2). The presence of unique landscapes and biodiversity made SMNP a World Heritage Site in 1978 (SMNP Office report, 2020).
The climate of the Simien Mountains is quite different from the surrounding lowlands. Analyses of metrological data obtained from Ethiopian Meteorological Agency (EMA) Debark and Chenek stations (from 2003 to 2022) showed a unimodal rainfall pattern with variations in attitude. The mean annual rainfall for Debark and Chenek was 1145 and 1445, respectively. The area has low rainfall from October to March, which gradually increases to the peak period, June and August (Fig. 3). The mean annual temperature of Debark and Chenek was 14.2 and 9.1 °C, respectively. The coldest months are from October to January, whereas hotness occurs in April and May.
Vertically the vegetation of the mountains is classified into four. These are afroalpine, ericaceous belt, afromontane and woodland (Fig. 4). The afroalpine vegetation is largely made up of grasses and sedges covering the undulating plains, interspersed with Lobelia rhynchopetalum, and other herbaceous species. Small trees of Hypencum revolutum mixed with Ericas are sparsely distributed in less harsh areas. The ericaceous belt is a narrow zone between afromontane and afroalpine, ranging from 3000 to 3200 m altitude mostly occurs on the escarpment. The physiognomy of the Erica belt is largely characterized by the dominance of Erica species, Hypericum revolutum and perennial herbs such as Thymus schimperi. The afromontane vegetation is found in the area between 2,000 and 3,000 m a.s.l., in the less steep parts of the escarpment. Original afromontane forests are largely destroyed by human activities with the remaining patches confined to inaccessible areas [16]. Characteristic tree species in the forest patches include Prunus africana and Olea eurpea subsp. cuspidata with the prevalent climbers such as Jasminum abyssinicum. Moreover, the lowest areas contain savannah type wood and bushland.
Study site and informant selection
After conducting a reconnaissance survey, ten kebeles (the smallest administrative unit), among 42 buffering kebeles in the park, were selected for traditional lore data collection. Selection was made purposefully based on their relatively high plant diversity, altitudinal ranges, agroecology, traditional medicinal practices and the presence or absence of health facilities. Thus, as they met the selection criteria, Adebabay Tsion, Adisge, Bashaye, Agdamiya, Dibebahir, Guayint, Lon, Sakiba, Zakileta and Zebana were selected as study sites (kebeles) (Fig. 5).
A total of 100 informants (70 males and 30 females) aged between 20 and 90 years were selected from the sampled kebeles. Of these, 80 were selected randomly as general informants, and the rest 20 were selected purposefully as key informants based on the recommendations of local healers, elders and park rangers following [17]. Information on the study locations and informants’ demographic profiles are summarized properly (Table 1). Prior to commencing the interview, all participants were informed about the aim of the study. Following this, all informants voluntarily provided their oral consent. The ethnobotanical study was, then, conducted in accordance with the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics 2006 (http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/).
Traditional lore data collection
Data were collected through face-to-face or individual interviews, focus group discussions and guided field walks with. Field visits were done in different seasons with the aim of gathering medicinal plants during their flowering time. Interviews were conducted in Amharic language and run independently to make informants free to deal with secret information. During data collection, informants were communicated twice to validate the consistency and reliability of the information provided by them. Face-to-face interviews were used to collect secret or sensitive information that is considered personal, confidential, or culturally sensitive that could harm individuals, communities, or cultural traditions if disclosed without proper consent such as traditional healing practices, including medicinal plant use and its disclosure without proper authorization could be disrespectful. Information was gathered based on semi-structured questionnaires contained in a checklist that covered key topics regarding the informants’ profile, medicinal plants, parts used, method of remedy preparation, remedy dosage, route of remedy administration, antidotes or ingredients used, interaction of healers with the forest, ailments treated, marketability, threats and conservation practices of medicinal plants [17].
Focus group discussions (FGDs) were held by using 6–8 key informants selected purposefully from the different study sites, age groups and sexes. The discussions were used for ranking medicinal and other uses of medicinal plant species, enriching and confirming the reliability of the qualitative description of the information obtained during the face-to-face interview. Thus, it allows researchers to collect rich and in-depth qualitative data that helps to gain a deeper understanding of the complex relationships between people and plants within that specific cultural contexts, ultimately contributing to the conservation of traditional knowledge and the sustainable use of plant resources. On-site confirmations of the reliability of the information obtained during face-to-face interviews, with the help of practical demonstrations with informants, were also conducted through guided field walks. In addition, information regarding medicinal plant names, habits, habitats, status and market demand for medicinal plants was collected using a guided field walk with the informants. The medicinal plant specimen collections and photographs were taken during guided field walks. Local market surveys were carried out at three comparatively large market places in the study area: Debark, Qayit (Janamora) and Mekane-birhan (Janamora’s main city) local markets, so as to assess the marketability (selling and buying) of medicinal plants which is ultimately related to the survival of medicinal plants. Voucher specimen collections were done with the help of traditional healers. Specimens were air-dried, numbered, labeled, pressed, identified and deposited at the University of Gondar Herbarium. Identification of plant specimens was done both in the field and at the herbarium using floras of Ethiopia and Eritrea.
Data analyses
Traditional lore variations and dynamics on the use of medicinal plants by males and females in different age groups and general and key informants were compared using a t test and one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) at a 95% confidence level between means by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 20. Basic traditional lore data such as plant habits and parts used, life form, source of medicinal plants, method of remedy preparation, route of remedy administration, ailments treated, threats and conservation practices of medicinal plants were analyzed via descriptive statistics such as percentage, frequency distribution and graphs as recommended by [17, 18].
In addition, ethnobotanical data clustering and ranking methods such as informant consensus factor (ICF), preference ranking, direct matrix ranking and fidelity level were carried out to ensure consistency and priority. ICF was computed for various categories of ailments in order to assess the level of agreement among informants regarding their knowledge of medicinal plants within each category. To determine ICF values, diseases were divided into nine groups, more or less, based on the international classification of diseases (ICD) [19], after which the ICF value was determined for each category. ICF values for nine disease categories were performed to understand knowledge homogeneity among informants for each disease category using the formula ICF = Nur-nt / Nur − 1 [20], where Nur = number of use citations in a particular ailment category and nt = number of medicinal plant species used for any ailment category.
A preference ranking exercise was conducted to evaluate the degree of preferences or levels of importance of eight selected medicinal plants used to treat bleeding using seven randomly selected key informants following [17]. Each informant assigned the highest value (7) for the most preferred plant species against bleeding and the lowest value (1) for the least preferred species. Finally, scores given for each plant species by the informants were summed and ranked. Such ranking helps to understand which plants, among the listed once, are considered more valuable to treat the specific disease mentioned, in this case bleeding. The use diversities of therapeutic plants were computed by direct matrix ranking (DMR). During the DMR exercise, seven widely utilized multipurpose therapeutic plant species were compared by selected key informants following [17]. The plants were listed by the selected key informants to assign use values to each species (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used and 0 = not used). Accordingly, the scores assigned by key informants were added and ranked.
Fidelity level (FL) was used for species mentioned over 30 times to check their efficacy for a specific aliment following [21]. It was calculated as FL (%) = (Np/N) × 100, where Np is the number of informants that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular disease and N is the number of informants that use the plants as a medicine to treat any disease, as stated by [22]. Fidelity level helps to measure the extent to which a plant is faithfully and consistently used for a specific use category, in this case treating a particular disease. Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (Js) was used to compare the current study with other ethnobotanical studies in other parts of the nation. It was calculated using the formula Js = c/(a + b + c), where a represents the number of plants in an area "a," b represents the number of plants in area "b," and c represents the number of plants common to areas a and b.
Results and discussion
Relation of traditional lore and the natural environment
An independent sample test showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between traditional healers and general informants on the number of medicinal plant species they listed and associated use reports (Table 2). Similar results were reported by [23,24,25]. The significant difference observed between key and general informants could relate to the impact of age-old experience and the maximum degree of secrecy in using medicinal plants in the former and modernization in the latter. Based on their experience and assessing previous documents [23], told us community members who have greater contact with medicinal plants are more knowledgeable about the therapeutic uses of the plants than those with intermittent contact. Some informants even reported that several key informants are specialized for treating particular diseases like rabies and hepatitis (in local language it is called “YEWOFIE”).
The high level of indigenous knowledge contained in traditional practitioners may also be attributed to environmental advantages, cultural practices and public health services. Simien Mountains massifs, owing to their unique geological formation, wide altitudinal range and diverse topographic features, are endowed with a spectacular landscape. The combined effect of these factors gifted the mountain ecosystems with rich biodiversity, making the area part of the eastern afromontane biodiversity hotspot. SMNP, a portion of the massif, was declared as a World Natural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1978 in honor of its unique combination of biodiversity and scenic beauty. The park covers a wide altitudinal range from below 2,000 m in the deep valleys to over 4,500 m a.s.l. in Ras Dashen (the highest peak in Ethiopia). Its topography, with gorges, crests, rocks and flat areas, results in a rich mosaic pattern of various habitats that favor the distribution of various species and increased isolation by impeding dispersal and pollination that ultimately result distinct species. The overall effect of these factors promotes to high species diversity with rich endemic elements. Thus, previous studies reported over 525 flowering plants [14, 16]. Therefore, higher species richness and diversity in the study area increase the chance of practitioners to prescribe the right remedy to their patients.
Christians, Muslims and Jews have lived in the SMNP and its environs for many generations, sharing strong cultural and economic ties. Jewish people have a strong connection to the environment and a tradition of using it for a variety of purposes, including the use of herbal medicine. As part of Israel's effort to gather its citizens from all over the world, the Jewish people have now largely been relocated from the area. However, their traditional wisdom and indigenous practices are left behind and become the wealth of local residents of the study area.
In the five districts sharing SMNP, there are 200,941 people and 54,576 households getting health services from three hospitals, 35 health centers and 100 posts. The most common public health issues that residents surrounding the park experiences include heart disease, hypertension, respiratory diseases, skin problems, injuries, diabetes, conjunctivitis and other eye infections (North Gondar Zone Health Office report, 2021). Access to infrastructure is limited in comparison with the national level. By deploying two female health extension workers in health posts at each kebele across the nation, government of Ethiopia launched disease prevention Health Extension Program. Nevertheless, the program did not bring the desired output in the primary health care of the SMNP residents. Female extension workers find it difficult to cross the undulating terrains of the dissected mountains’ topography to provide house-to-house health services. Thus, traditional healers, with a profound knowledge on local plants and diseases to be treated, are the only health workers immediately available to the inhabitants. In short, rich biological resources, strong cultural ties to the local resources, remote location and challenging topographic features for accessing modern health facilities make the settlers have a long tradition of using herbal traditional medicines as a primary health care.
Though males reported a higher number of therapeutic plants than females, the t test did not show a significant difference (P > 0.05) (Table 2). This finding is consistent with some other studies conducted in Ethiopia [24, 26,27,28], who claimed the absence of a significant relationship between gender and the number of medicinal plants listed by them. A higher number of plants reported by male informants than females, on average, could be related to the traditional flow of information along the male line in the nation [23]. On the contrary, this study disagrees with the previous reports by [25, 29] that highlighted a significant knowledge difference between the sexes. Besides, no significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed between the age groups (20–39 and 40–90 years) and the number of medicinal plant species they listed, as well as the respective uses they reported (Table 2). However, on average, elders mentioned greater number of medicinal plants and their uses (Table 2). This demonstrates that the therapeutic plants lore is still strong with elderly people [23] and lack of interest in acquiring the wisdom in young generation.
The present study highlighted the good knowledge base of residents on herbal remedy. Verbal communication, as reported by informants, was the most common way of transferring the traditional wisdom (83%) among the family members especially to the elder son. During transfer, secrecy is expected to be maintained in the family circle [23]. Wisdom obtained through other means was minimal (Fig. 6). In addition, some informants reported that they gained knowledge of medicinal plants by following traditional healers behind (without the permission of the healer) during medicinal plant harvest. Furthermore, a Muslim healer believed that their traditional wisdom was a gift from Allah or through religious learning.
The informants worried about the threat of indigenous knowledge as a result of younger generations reduced interest to learn about the medicinal plants due to the impact verbal transmission and modern education. Similar findings were also reported in other parts of Ethiopia [23, 30]. As a result, the absence of documented medicinal plants knowledge coupled with lack of interest in younger generation to learn indigenous wisdom threats future use of medicinal plants.
Medicinal plants diversity in SMNP
A total of 113 medicinal plant species belonging to 92 genera and 56 families were documented. Except for one species, Junperus procera, all other medicinal plant species collected in the study area were angiosperms, with 90.3% being dicots and 9.7% monocots (Appendix 1). The species richness of medicinal plants in SMNP was higher than in Bale Mountains National Park [29], Mount Elgon, Kenya [31], Selale Mountain Ridges [27] and Gokand Valley, Pakistan [32], with 101, 107, 79 and 109 species, respectively. The higher numbers of medicinal plant species in SMNP might be associated with the mosaic pattern of microhabitats and great altitudinal variation (from below 2,000 m to over 4,500 m a.s.l.) that caused great ecological variation. In addition, the good number of therapeutic plants mentioned in the study area is another way of proving the rich traditional wisdom still practiced in the local community for their health care. Local communities adhere to the ancestral medical traditions by upholding them as a highly valued heritage of society [23].
Asteraceae was the most therapeutic plant species-rich family (10%), followed by Solanaceae (7%), Euphorbiaceae (7%), Lamiaceae (6%) and Cucurbitaceae (4%). There were seven families represented by three species, six families were represented by two species, and the remaining 38 families were represented by one species. The aforementioned eighteen families accounted for about 64% of all species. Euphorbia was a species-rich genus (4 species), followed by Ficus, Remex, and Solanum, represented by three species each. Three genera (Alium, Echinops, and Helichrysum) were represented by two species each, and all other genera (89) were represented by one species each (Fig. 7, Appendix 1). The dominance of Asteraceae was also reported in [23] (12 species), [33] (19 species), [34] (25 species) and [32] (six species). Its dominance may be explained by species abundance, which is linked with their efficient dispersal mechanisms at higher altitudes in high mountains. The wide application of species from these families might also be associated with the presence of effective bioactive chemicals against ailments.
In terms of plant growth habit, 36 families, 47 genera and fifty-three species were herbs; twenty families, 26 genera and 28 species were shrubs; 15 families, 18 genera and 22 species were trees; nine families, nine genera and none species were lianas (Table 3). Therefore, most of the therapeutic species recorded were herbs (47%), followed by shrubs (25%) (Fig. 8). The dominance of herbs was also disclosed by [29] (54.46%), [34] (47%) and [32] (52.29%). Their abundance might be due to their abundance at higher altitudes since vegetation stature decreases as altitude increases, which ultimately leads to a higher abundance of herbaceous species with different growth forms (forbs, grasses, giant herbs, etc.). In addition, the ease of availability in the nearby area and the efficacy of herbs made local people depend more on herbs [33]. Conversely, the findings of this work were contradictory to some other previous works [35, 36], who reported shrubs were the dominant medicinal species due to their year-round harvest and their relative tolerance to any form of disturbance. The therapeutic plants collected in the study area were reported to treat 87 different aliments, of which 73% were known to treat human ailments only (Fig. 9). Similar results were reported in previous works [35, 37]. This demonstrates that greater emphasis is given to treating human health problems as compared to livestock [35].
Among the recorded medicinal plants in SMNP, thirteen (11%) of them were endemic to Ethiopia. These were Cynoglossum coeruleum subsp. coeruleum. Verbascum stelurum, Echinops kebericho, Inula confertifora, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Urtica simensis, Aloe steudneri, Helichrysum horridum, Vernonia rueppellii, Thymus schimperi, Kniphofia foliosa, Kalanchoe petitiana, and Impatiens tinctoria. From these endemic plants, Urtica simensis, Aloe steudneri, Helichrysum horridum, Vernonia rueppellii, Thymus schimperi, Kniphofia foliosa, Kalanchoe petitiana, and Impatiens tinctoria were included in the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red Lists [38]. Kalanchoe petitiana and Echinops kebericho were also reported by local people as locally threatened species in the area (Table 6). Being unique to Ethiopia, further analysis of their potential medical benefits could provide novel and significant scientific findings.
Sources of medicinal plants
The major source of medicinal plant species was the wild natural vegetation (77%). Some therapeutic plants were collected both in wild and cultivated areas (9.7%) and homesteads (8.8%) as well as few of the plants, such as Zingiber officinale, Citrus aurantiifolia, and Coffea arabica, were found in markets (4.4%) (Fig. 10). The result of this work agreed with similar previous works [24, 36, 39]. This implies that natural vegetation still contains a good number of therapeutic plants, or that local communities do have little practice of conserving medicinal plants in their homesteads. Thus, a good opportunity for the inhabitant’s bordering SMNP to access medicinal plants from the park might make the natural vegetation the main source of medicinal plants.
Plant parts used in the study area
Roots were the most widely used plant part (37%), followed by leaves (31%). Other plant parts that were utilized to prepare remedies made about 0.3–7.9% of the total (Fig. 11). The dominance of roots for remedy preparation was also reported by other similar previous studies [29, 31]. The local people perceived that roots are available in all seasons and that active biological ingredients are more common at the tips of roots and leaves. A similar result was also disclosed by [40], who reported that the presence of more antibiotic chemicals in roots than other plant parts makes roots the most preferred. Conversely, most previous studies, including [34, 35], reported that leaves are the most commonly used plant part for remedy preparation since, unlike roots, harvesting leaves does not have detrimental effects on the survival of medicinal plants. In addition, secondary metabolites are largely produced and concentrated in leaves.
Conditions of remedy preparation, preparation methods and administration routs
Most of the remedies were prepared from fresh plant parts (66.6%), whereas 17.5% and 15.9% were prepared from dry and fresh/dry forms, respectively. The result was consistent with the findings of the previous studies [28, 41, 42], who reported that the use of fresh forms increases the efficacy of medicinal plants since the secondary metabolites that have antimicrobial activities are retained in the extract since the chemicals are easily removed when they dry up. The remedies were commonly prepared by pounding (50.1%). Other preparation methods were far less common than pounding, which accounted for 13.2% of boiling (heating) to 0.6% of decoction (Fig. 12). This result is consistent with similar previous works [23, 43, 44]. The reason pounding is most frequently employed is the assumption that pounding releases the therapeutic ingredients into the extracts through heavy, repeated striking of medicinal plants during the procedure.
The most frequently used route of remedy administration was oral (48.1%), where the remedies are taken by drinking or eating, followed by dermal, where remedies are creamed, rubbed, or bathed (34.7%). Other routs of were far less frequent than oral and dermal, which accounted for 9.5% of nasal and 0.3% of nasal/dermal cases (Fig. 13). Similar reports have been made by [35, 36, 42]. Oral rout is preferred due to the rapid reaction of the medicine to treat the illness that the local healers realized through their longer experience [36].
Ethnobotanical data scoring and ranking
Efficacy of medicinal plants
The highest ICF value (84%) had been shown for categories of respiratory disease and febrile illness. On the other hand, the category of central nervous system (CNS)-related diseases had the lowest ICF value (57%). The highest plant use citation was also found for the same disease category (Table 4). The highest ICF values demonstrated greater agreement among respondents’ on the use of therapeutic plant species reported for treating respiratory disease and febrile illness. The observed highest informants’ agreement, coupled with high plant use citations for the disease category, could also confirm the relatively higher incidence of the diseases in SMNP. According to [45], when information is exchanged between informants, ICF approaches to one demonstrating higher information exchanges between the communities living around SMNP.
Priority ranking of therapeutic plants
The preference ranking exercise was used to identify the most preferred medicinal plants from the list of plants that stop bleeding in the study. Thus, the ranking score disclosed that Rumex nepalensis stood first, showing the most preferred species for treating bleeding, followed by Achyranthes aspera (Table 5). On the other hand, Ficus palmata was seen to score the least preference value relative to other species to stop bleeding. Other therapeutic plant species listed in the priority ranking (Malva verticillata, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex nervosus, Aloe steudneri, and Datura stramonium) had medicinal value in between the first and least ranked therapeutic plant species to stop bleeding. This finding disagrees with the finding of [24], who reported that Achyranthes aspera was the most preferred plant to stop bleeding. On the other hand, the fact that Achyranthes aspera has been mentioned as a medicinal plant in other study area may indicate that the species possesses medicinal properties that have been used to halt bleeding as well as the dissemination (or exchange) of indigenous knowledge among communities across different geographical areas.
Use diversity of medicinal plants
A direct matrix ranking exercise was used to test the use diversity of multipurpose therapeutic plants in the study area. This was also used as a means to identify which of the multipurpose plant species is under severe anthropogenic pressure with the corresponding threatening factor. Accordingly, Olea europaea was the most desired multipurpose plant species, followed by Hagenia abyssinica, whereas Brucea antidysenterica was the least wanted multipurpose plant species. In other words, Olea europaea and Hagenia abyssinica, the most desired multipurpose therapeutic plant species, become endangered due to overharvesting (Table 6).
The result could tell us these plants are exploited for several household purposes. Overharvesting of multipurpose medicinal plant species for medicinal use, agricultural tools and firewood purposes was the major factor in the decline of the species in SMNP. Previous authors [23, 29, 46] also disclosed that overharvesting of multipurpose medicinal plants for different purposes fastens the depletion of plant species in different regions of Ethiopia. According to [23], a plant's use diversity indicates how frequently it is used, which contributes to its decline in the area. These authors, based on the results of their work, called for urgent complementary conservation action (in-situ and ex-situ) to save the fast-eroding multipurpose medicinal plant species.
Fidelity level (FL)
It helps to measure the extent of faithful and consistent relative healing potential of each species treating a particular disease. In SMNP, the highest fidelity level was recorded for Rumex nepalensis (92%) for treating wound, followed by Phytolacca dodecandra (90%) for treating rabies (Table 7). A higher fidelity level is considered as a clue for the high healing potential of these plants against the corresponding diseases. Secondary metabolites with wound healing effects were previously reported from Rumex nepalensis by [47, 48]. This might be the reason why local people use the species widely to treat wounds. Medicinal plants with the highest fidelity level indicate that they are widely used by the local people [20]. In the study conducted by [36], Phytolacca dodecandra was found to have the highest fidelity level for treating rabies. The use of the same plant species for the same ailment in different localities demonstrates their cosmopolitan distribution and the fact that such plant species are effective for treatment of specific ailments. On the other hand, Echinops kebericho was seen scoring the lowest FL value (46%) for treating the evil eye (Table 7). The highest fidelity value indicated the most faithfulness of species to treat a given aliment and vice versa [3]. Plants with the highest ranking value, ICF and/or fidelity level could be candidates for further phytochemical investigation to prove the bioactive components responsible for their high healing potential [23].
Marketability of medicinal plants
Local market surveys revealed that some therapeutic plants, Rubia cordifolia and Securidaca longepedunculata, were sold in the market for the treatment of cough and evil eye, respectively. While in the remaining local markets, plants were sold for other purposes such as food (Lycopersicum esculentum, Allium sativum, Allium cepa), fumigants for a pleasant smell at home (Cymbopogon citrates, Silene macrosolen, Olea europea subsp cuspidata, Otostegia integrifolia), tooth brushes (Olinia rochetiana, olea europea subsp cuspidata), and additives to fermented beverages (Tella) (Rhamnus prinoides) and spice (Ruta chalepensis) The less marketability of medicinal plants was also reported by [30]. Most of the time, healers prescribe medication to patients at their home rather than bringing medicinal plants into the market with the intention of making money.
Though most of the medicinal plants are not found in the market for the medicinal purposes, it was observed that they are marketable for other purpose. The marketability of medicinal plants, for any purpose, is closely associated to the conservation risk of the plant species. Market demand for medicinal plants (either for medicinal or others uses) can put pressure on wild populations that may lead to overharvesting and unsustainable collection practices that pose a conservation risk. The marketability of medicinal plants can also drive illegal trade by targeting species of high commercial value. In response to market demand, unsustainable harvesting practices may be employed, such as collecting plants at an immature stage or removing the entire plant instead of selectively harvesting specific parts. These practices hinder regeneration, disrupt ecological interactions and affect the long-term survival of the species. Promoting sustainable cultivation and domestication of medicinal plants can help reduce the reliance on wild collection and alleviate the conservation risk associated with high market demand.
Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity
Jaccard's similarity coefficient was performed to compare the therapeutic plant species composition similarity with seven other previously studied areas in the nation. It has been found that the SMNP shared the highest similarity (34.53%) with Yilmana Densa and Quarit Districts, followed by Ada’a District (31.72%). This similarity might be due to shared common culture and religion. Though SMNP and Bale Mountains National Park are similar ecosystems, they share a lesser therapeutic plant species similarity (9.14%). This may be the result of differences in the people’s historical and cultural traditions. The study conducted in the Erer Valley of Babile Districts shared the least number of common therapeutic plant species (3.77%) with SMNP (Table 8). This may be due to the altitudinal range differences between the two areas (Table 8). The elevation ranges of Erer Valley in Babile lie between 940 and 1585 m, while SMNP lies between the ranges of 1500 and 4500 m above sea level. Variations and similarities in cultural practices and environmental factors, as well as the proximity of regions, are the causes behind the level of exchange of traditional knowledge and medicinal plants across various locales.
Threats and conservation of medicinal plants in the study area
Associated with the rapid population growth, the demand for agricultural and grazing land is increasing. Consequently, the vegetation of the study area is shrinking, followed by a decline in the availability of therapeutic plants over time. A preference ranking of six factors that threaten medicinal plants showed overgrazing as the most serious threat, followed by agricultural expansion. Therapeutic plant collection was ranked as the least threatening factor (Table 9). After the relocation of villages (Gich and Arkwazeye) from the park and removing the road out of the park boundary, overgrazing and agricultural expansion are identified as the major factors threatening the biodiversity of the park (SMNP Office report, 2020). This finding is in line with the study conducted in Gozamin district [29]. On the other hand, the studies conducted in other areas of the nation [49,50,51] reported agricultural expansions as the principal threatening factor. Further analysis showed that Echinops kebericho was found to be the most threatened and rare therapeutic plant species, followed by Kalanchoe petitiana (Table 10). Similarly, the same species is reported as rare in the Sheka Zone [52]. Frequent use of its root as traditional medicine might be the reason for its current rare occurrence.
Regarding conservation practices, 89% of informants said that local communities exert little effort and do have a weak tradition of conserving therapeutic plant species. Few members of the community attempt to grow plants on their homesteads for therapeutic purposes. Similar findings were also reported in Ankober district [23]. The reason not to attempt growing in their homesteads might be related to the fact that they still have an opportunity to collect therapeutic plants in the park.
Novel ethnobotanical findings
New insights were revealed by a comparative analysis of the present work and earlier ethnobotanical research conducted in Ethiopia. It was reported for the first time that Helichrysum horridum (endemic to Ethiopia), Helichrysum citrispinum, and Vernonia rueppellii had traditional therapeutic values. Pounded roots of Helichrysum horridum and leaves of Inula confertiflora with butter were reported to treat cattle eye disease. Likewise, its dried and pounded root, together with the seeds of Lobelia rhynchopetalum and Sesamum indicum, was recorded to treat uterine myoma. In addition, tying its internal stem bark around a child’s waist is used to avoid child bed waiting. Eating the crushed roots of Helichrysum citrispinum was reported for the treatment of a disease locally called “MICH” (a fetal disease caused by sitting on warm, moist soil or by exposing to suffocated material during sunny time). Vernonia rueppellii fresh leaves were reported to stop bleeding. Even this species was not mentioned in the globally reviewed 109 medicinal species of the genus Vernonia [53]. Aloe steudneri (endemic to Ethiopia) was also the first to be reported for the treatment of human wound. These include bleeding, wounds and snake bites. In addition, it is used to make hair black and smooth. Moreover, it was reported to make cattle and sheep more muscular. This might be related to the clearing of intestinal parasites, as [54] reported.
Even though Dodonea angustifolia was reported for the treatment of different ailments by different authors, it is the first to be mentioned against Corona Virus Disease 19 (COVID-19). This study is also the first to report Kosteletzkya begoniifolia against abortion and scorpion bite. But it was reported for the treatment of anthrax [55] and body swelling [55, 56]. Even though Haplocarpha schimperi was reported for different medicinal values [23, 34, 57], the current study recorded leaves for the treatment of Tinea versicolor, which is the first report in Ethiopia. Lobelia rhynchopetalum and Satureja simensis are also mentioned only in this study against epidemic diseases and baby weight loss, respectively. The root of Carduus schimperi and the bark of Ficus vasta are also used for the treatment of sheep nasal discharge and female infertility, respectively, which is the first documentation in Ethiopia.
The specific medicinal use(s), either in single or in combination, of Helichrysum horridum, Inula confertiflora, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Sesamum indicum, Aloe steudneri, Satureja simensis, Carduus schimperi, Haplocarpha schimperi and Kosteletzkya begoniifolia described in this work are also novel or findings reported for the first time in Africa. These medicinal plants are all endemic to Ethiopia.
Conclusion
The higher therapeutic plant species richness of the study area demonstrates that SMNP is serving as an in-situ conservation site and refuge for many endemic and endangered species. In other words, the documentation of a higher number of therapeutic plants proves the rich traditional lore of the local community in using therapeutic plants for their health care is still continuing. Increased demand for free grazing and agricultural expansion highly threatens the vegetation of the study area in general and therapeutic plants in particular. Erosion of therapeutic plants, verbal transfer via family line, great secrecy and lack of interest of the young generation in acquiring the traditional lore of therapeutic plants led to the deterioration of the long tradition of using therapeutic plants for health care. Practitioners should be encouraged (through various means) to share and bring their traditional wisdom to the scientific frontage, and highly preferred and endangered therapeutic plant species like Echinops kebericho should get priority for conservation measures, and local healers need to grow such plants in their homesteads.
Data availability
All the necessary data collected for this study were analyzed and included in the tables, figures and appendix of the manuscript.
Abbreviations
- CNS:
-
Central nervous system
- DMR:
-
Direct matrix ranking
- EMA:
-
Ethiopian Meteorological Agency
- FGD:
-
Focus group discussion
- FL:
-
Fidelity level
- ICD:
-
International classification of diseases
- ICF:
-
Informant consensus factor
- ISE:
-
International society of ethnobiology
- IUCN:
-
International Union for Conservation of Nature
- SMNP:
-
Simien Mountains National Park
- UNDP:
-
United Nations Development Programme
- UNESCO:
-
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
References
Mahomoodally M.F. Traditional medicines in Africa: an appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evid-based Complement Altern Med 2013; 1–13.
Dagne E. The status of herbal products: the case of East Africa. United Nation Development Program (UNDP) and the International Centre for Science; 2003.
Masresha G, Melkamu Y. The status of dry evergreen afromontane forest patches in Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. Int J For Res 2022; 1–11.
Mesfin F, Demissew S, Teklehaymanot T. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Wonago Woreda, Southern Nation, Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5(1):1–18.
Tesfaye MA, Bravo-Oviedo A, Bravo F, Ruiz-Peinado R. Aboveground biomass equations for sustainable production of fuel wood in a native dry tropical afro-montane forest of Ethiopia. Ann For Sci. 2016;73(2):411–23.
Siraj M, Zhang K, Xiao W, Bilal A, Gemechu S, Geda K, Xiaodan L. Does participatory forest management save the remnant forest in Ethiopia? Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B Biol Sci. 2018;88(1):1–14.
Debonnet G, Melamari L, Bomhard B. Reactive monitoring mission to Simien Mountains National Park. Joint World Heritage Center-IUCN monitoring mission to Simien Mountains National Park World Heritage property, France; 2006.
Yihune M, Bekele A, Tefera Z. Human–gelada baboon conflict in and around the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Afr J Ecol. 2009;47(3):276–82.
Ejigu D, Bekele A. Population structure and group size of geladas (Theropithecus gelada) at Chenek, Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Afr J Ecol. 2017;55(4):564–72.
Ejigu D, Bekele A, Powell L. Walia ibex have increased in number and shifted their habitat range within Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J Mt Ecol. 2017;10:27–44.
Melese GT, Tsegay BA, Kassa GM. Effects of environmental variables on the patterns of plant community distribution in the afro-alpine vegetation of simien mountains national park, Ethiopia. J Biotechnol Int. 2017;10(1):8–21.
Melese GT, Abraha B, Masresha G, Kuratie GB. Patterns of plant community formation and vegetation structure in the afro-alpine vegetation of Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Int J Biotechnol. 2018;7(1):31–43.
Masresha G. Study on temporal alterations in land cover types in Simien Mountain National Park, Northwest Ethiopia. Int J Sustain Agric Res. 2019;6(3):125–36.
Masresha G. Composition and endemicity of plant species in simien mountains National Park Flora, North Gondar, Northwestern Ethiopia. Ethiop J Nat Comput Sci. 2022;2(1):301–10.
UNESCO. State of Conservation Report of the World Natural Heritage Site, Simien Mountains National Park (Ethiopia) 2017.
Puff C, Nemomissa S. The Simen Mountains (Ethiopia): comments on plant biodiversity, endemism, phytogeographical affinities and historical aspects. Syst Geogr Plants. 2001;71(2):975–91.
Martin G. Ethnobotany: a methods manual. London: Chapman and Hall; 1995. p. 1–263.
Cotton CM. Ethnobotany: principles and applications. Hoboken, Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons; 1996. p. 448.
Hong Y. Zeng ML: international classification of diseases (ICD). Ko Knowl Organ. 2023;49(7):496–528.
Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C, Sticher O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47(11):1859–71.
Friedman J, Yaniv Z, Dafni A, Palewitch D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16(2–3):275–87.
Alexiades MN. Collecting ethnobotanical data: an introduction to basic concepts and techniques. Adv Econ Bot. 1996;10:53–94.
Lulekal E, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E, Van Damme P. Ethnomedicinal study of plants used for human ailments in Ankober District, North Shewa Zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1–13.
Chekole G. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used against human ailments in Gubalafto District, Northern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):1–29.
Alemneh D. Ethnobotanical study of plants used for human ailments in Yilmana densa and Quarit districts of west Gojjam Zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. BioMed Res Int 2021; 1–18.
Kefalew A, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in Ada’a District, East Shewa Zone of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(1):1–28.
Atnafu H, Awas T, Alemu S, Wube S. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Selale mountain ridges, North Shoa, Ethiopia. Int J Biodivers. 2018;2(6):567–77.
Amsalu N, Bezie Y, Fentahun M, Alemayehu A, Amsalu G. Use and conservation of medicinal plants by indigenous people of Gozamin Wereda, East Gojjam Zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical approach. Evid-Based Complement Altern Medicine 2018; 1–17.
Yineger H, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Lulekal E. Plants used in traditional management of human ailments at Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2008;2(6):132–53.
Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z, Teklehaymanot T. Medicinal plant knowledge of the Bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical investigation. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009;5(1):1–10.
Okello SV, Nyunja RO, Netondo GW, Onyango JC. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Sabaots of Mt. Elgon Kenya. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2010;7(1):1–10.
Sulaiman SS, Khan S, Bussmann RW, Ali M, Hussain D, Hussain W. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the tribal communities of Gokand Valley, District Buner, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Plants. 2020;9(8):1–29.
Baydoun S, Chalak L, Dalleh H, Arnol N. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine by the communities of Mount Hermon, Lebanon. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:139–56.
Teka A, Asfaw Z, Demissew S, Van Damme P. Medicinal plant use practice in four ethnic communities (Gurage, Mareqo, Qebena, and Silti), south central Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:1–12.
Abebe BA, Chane Teferi S. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock ailments in Hulet Eju Enese Woreda, east Gojjam zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2021;10:1–11.
Bekele M, Woldeyes F, Lulekal E, Bekele T, Demissew S. Ethnobotanical investigation of medicinal plants in Buska Mountain range, Hamar district, Southwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2022;18(1):1–26.
Assefa A, Abebe T. Ethnobotanical study of wild medicinal trees and shrubs in Benna Tsemay District, Southern Ethiopia. J Sci Dev. 2014;2(1):17–33.
Vivero JL, Kelbessa E, Demissew S. The red list of endemic trees and shrubs of Ethiopia and Eritrea; 2005.
Kindie B, Tamiru C, Abdala T. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and conservation status used to treat human and livestock ailments in Fadis District, Eastern Ethiopia. Int J Homeopath Nat Med. 2021;7(1):7–17.
Zeng X, Zhang P, Wang Y, Qin C, Chen S. He CMAUP: a database of collective molecular activities of useful plants. Nucleic Acids Res. 2019;47:1118–27.
Birhan YS, Kitaw SL, Alemayehu YA, Mengesha NM. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human diseases in Enarj Enawga district, East Gojjam zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. SM J Med Plant Stud. 2017;1(1):1–9.
Chaachouay N, Benkhnigue O, Fadli M, El Ayadi R, Zidane L. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat osteoarticular diseases in the Moroccan Rif, Morocco. J Pharm Pharmacogn Res. 2019;7(6):454–70.
Tamiru F, Terfa W, Kebede E, Dabessa G, Roy RK, Sorsa M. Ethnoknowledge of plants used in veterinary practices in Dabo Hana District, West Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7(40):2960–71.
Feyera T, Mekonnen E, Wakayo BU, Assefa S. Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies used by agro-pastoralists of Fafan zone, Eastern Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res. 2017;13:1–11.
Albuquerque UP, da Cunha, LVFC, De Lucena RFP, Alves RN (Eds.). Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. Kafkas Univ Inst Nat Appl Sci J 2020; 13(2): 119-121.
Asfaw A, Lulekal E, Bekele T, Debella A, Meresa A, Sisay B, Abebe A. Antibacterial and phytochemical analysis of traditional medicinal plants: an alternative therapeutic approach to conventional antibiotics. Heliyon. 2023;9(11):1–9.
Gonfa YH, Beshah F, Tadesse MG, Bachheti A, Bachheti RK. Phytochemical investigation and potential pharmacologically active compounds of Rumex nepalensis: an appraisal. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci. 2021;10(1):1–11.
Khan AN, Bhat I. Extraction, qualitative and quantitative determination of secondary metabolites of Rumex nepalensis roots. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2018;8(6):97–100.
Belayneh A, Asfaw Z, Demissew S, Bussa NF. Medicinal plants potential and use by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Erer Valley of Babile Wereda, Eastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8(1):1–11.
Tuasha N, Petros B, Asfaw Z. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in Dalle District, Sidama Zone, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):1–21.
Yohannis SW, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in Menz Gera Midir district, north Shewa zone, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2018;12(21):296–314.
Kassa Z, Asfaw Z, Demissew S. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in sheka zone of southern nations nationalities and peoples regional state, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:1–15.
Toyang NJ, Verpoorte R. A review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146(3):681–723.
Fentaw E, Dagne K, Wondimu T, Demissew S, Bjora CS, Grace OM. Uses and perceived sustainability of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae) in the central and northern Highlands of Ethiopia. S Afr J Bot. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.11.001.
Amde A, Masresha G, Hansha H, Asafa O. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants in Debark District, North Gondar, Ethiopia. Int J Sci Res Multidiscip Stud. 2020;16(11):16–23.
Abebe E. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by local communities in Debark Wereda, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia; 2011, pp. 1–139.
Woldemariam G, Demissew S, Asfaw Z. An ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used for human ailments in Yem ethnic group, south Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2021;2012(22):1–15.
Acknowledgements
We owe a debt of gratitude to the nearby communities of SMNP, especially the traditional healers who generously shared their expertise in medicinal plants with us. The Ethiopian Meteorological Agency (EMA) is also appreciated by the authors for providing climate data. We are very grateful to the Simien Mountains National Park Office and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority for granting permission to collect data in the park and for their general support during that period.
Funding
This work did not receive any Grant from funding agencies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
GM wrote and reviewed the main manuscript; ES collected the entire data and prepared the draft and YM prepared the draft manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The nature and purpose of this research was explained to all participants and verbal informed consent was made with them.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix 1: Medicinal plants, their habit, parts used, ailments treated, habitat, method of preparation and administration
Appendix 1: Medicinal plants, their habit, parts used, ailments treated, habitat, method of preparation and administration
Scientific name (Family, Local Name) | Classification | Ht | Intended use | Ra | Ailment treated | PPU, CP and methods of preparation | Plant source | Specimen code | GPS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex. A.DC. (Boraginaceae, Chegegot) | Di | H H | Hum | D | Febrile illness | Rub fresh leaves and applied topically | W | E001 | X 395839 |
Hum | D | Dysentery | Fingertip size of fresh roots pounded; mixed with cup of coffee and then drunk | Y 1465037 | |||||
Hum | Op | Eye cellulitis | Fresh leaves pounded and applied on eye | ||||||
Artemisia abyssinica Schtz. Bip. ex Rich (Asteraceae, Chikugn) | Di | Hum | N | Common cold | Fresh leaf and stem placed in nostril | W | E002 | X 394434 Y 1462614 | |
Hum | N/O | Evil eye | Fresh roots pounded combined with roots of Ferula communis and Verbasicumstelurum mix water and drunk or wrapped with a piece of cloth and dampen; then place in nose to smell | ||||||
Hum | D | Febrile illness | Crushed dried leaves and stem together with Thymusschimperi Ronniger, and smeared on skin | ||||||
Asparagus africanus L. (Asparagaceae, Yeset–kest) | Mo | H | Hum | D | Burnt body | Pounded the fresh leaves and applied on injured areas for 2 days | W | E003 | X398797 Y 1463416 |
Bersama abyssinica Fresen (Melianthaceae, Azamir) | Di | T | Hum | O | Gastric enteritis (Tsidaki) | Powdered the fresh leaves and mixed with water, then taken orally for 7 days | W | E004 | X 377597 Y 1458471 |
Buddleia polystachya Fresen. (Buddlejaceae, Anfar) | Di | T | Hum | D | Bleeding after delivery | Fresh leaves cut by knife and buried outside door on fixed stone by calling her Christ name | W | E005 | X 396015 Y 1462675 |
Hum | To make TELLA | Fresh leaves crushed and wash the containers of “Tella” local beer | |||||||
Washing cloth | Fresh leaves crushed, pounded and used as “traditional” soap | ||||||||
Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth (Fabaceae, Zigta) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Hepatitis | Pounded fresh/dried leaves and seed together and mixed with water, then 1/3 of a cup is drunk and eat boiled lentil after taking medication | W | E006 | X 394308 Y 1459262 |
Lk | D | External parasite | Fresh leaves pounded and mixed with water; then applied on affected area | ||||||
Hum | Wound | Fresh leaves pounded and mixed with saliva then applied on wound | |||||||
Carissa spinarum L. (Apocynaceae, Agam) | Di | Sh | Hum | N | Evil eye | Fresh/dried roots pounded together with roots of Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Thymus schimperi, Verbasicumstelurum and bulbs of Allium sativum then powdered and wrapped by piece of cloth and place in noses | W | E007 | X 401941 Y 1469114 |
Lk | N | Mich | Dried roots pounded and heated on fire and fumigate | ||||||
Lk | O | Rabies (for Dog itself) | Powdered fresh roots placed inside bread and given to eat | ||||||
Clematis simensis Fresen (Ranuncualaceae, Azo hareg) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | Wart | Tied fresh leaves on wart | W/H | ||
Hum | D | Swelling, Wound | Fresh leaves squeezed and applied on swelling part | E008 | X 426235 Y 1454125 | ||||
Hum | D | Ganglion cyst | Fresh leaves crushed and tied on affected part | ||||||
Unidentified (Sibta) | Di | H | Hum | O | Hepatitis | Fresh roots pounded and one is drunk | W | E009 | X 417251 Y 1467237 |
Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill (Simaroubaceae, Waginos) | Di | T | Hum | O | Rectal prolapse | Fresh roots crushed mixed with “Difdif” (beer must) and then swallowed | W | E010 | X 392703 Y 1462475 |
Lk | D | Skin disorder of donkey | Soaking fresh/dried pounded roots within water in pot and wash the injured part | ||||||
Lk | O | Dogs with rabies virus | Ground fresh/dried leaves finely, then mixed with milk and given to drink | ||||||
Lk | O | Chicken’s feather loss | Fresh leaves pounded and smashed with hand and then applied on infected area like ointment | ||||||
Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.)(Lamiaceae, Misrich) | Di | H | Hum | O | Snake bite | Fresh/dried root is pounded, mixed with water and drunk | W | E011 | X 379798 Y 1460659 |
Hum | O | Coughing | Crushed fresh/dried roots, boiled with ginger and “abosida,” then filtered and drunk with milk | ||||||
Crinum abyssinicum (Amaryllidaceae, Yejib shinkuret) | Mo | H | Lk | O | To kill rat | Fresh bulbs pounded and gave it for rat to eat | W | E012 | X 395554 Y 1462364 |
Croton macrostachyus Del. (Euphorbiaceae, Misana) | Di | T | Hum | O | Hepatitis | The fresh leaves macerated, mixed with honey and taken orally | W | E013 | X 394252 Y 1459070 |
Hum | O | Tapeworm | Fresh barks crushed and pounded; then eaten with boiled beans | ||||||
Lk | O | Chicken disease | Fresh leaves pounded well and mixed with water and given to drink | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea corporis | Fresh leaves pounded well and applied on affected part | ||||||
Hum | O | Snake bite | Chewing fresh barks and swallowing juice | ||||||
Hum | D | Make baby fat | Young leaves crushed, mixed with water and with other herbs and showering body | ||||||
Salvia nilotica Vahl. (Lamiaceae, Hulegeb) | Di | H | Hum | O | Rabies | Dried root pounded, powdered and mixed with milk and taken orally | W | E014 | X 379152 Y 1460758 |
Unidentified (–, yebere kolet) | Di | H | Hum | O | Sexual impotency | Dried roots powdered and mixed with honey; then taken orally | X 380233 Y 1461155 | ||
Euclea racemosa L. (Ebenaceae, Dedeho) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Syphilis | Fresh/dried root is pounded and boiled with water then after cooling one goblets per day taken orally for 7 days | W | E015 | X 402496 Y 1469130 |
Euphorbia abyssinica J. F. Gmel (Euphorbiaceae, Kulkual) | Di | Hum | D | Swelling | Applied fresh latex on swelling areas | W/H | E016 | X 418304 Y 1455976 | |
Lk | O | Dog with rabis virus | Fresh latex mixed with milk and 1/3 of a “finjale” (cup) is given orally | E017 | X 418304 Y 1455976 | ||||
Lk | D | Skin disorder of Donkey | Smeared fresh latex on horse body | ||||||
Hum | D | Wart | Fresh latex rubbed on wart until it cures | ||||||
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae, Timbaho) | Di | H | Lk | N | Leech | Crushed fresh leaves, mixed with water and given nasally | W | E018 | X 377809 Y 1458448 |
Lk | N | Cough | Pounded the fresh leaves, mixed with water and drench nasally | ||||||
Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex. Benth. (Lamiaceae, Damekasie) | Di | H | Hum | O | Febrile illness | Fresh leaves crushed, poured into cup of coffee or alone, then taken orally | W/H | E019 | X 380111 Y 1459682 |
Olea europaea sub spp.cuspidata L. (Oleaceae, woira) | Di | T | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Dry Barks crushed, powdered and mixed with water and taken orally or fresh barks soaking in water and taken orally | W | E020 | X 398407 Y 1466177 |
Hum | O | Toothache | Chewing and holding the very young stem by teeth | ||||||
Stephania abyssinica (Dill. & A. Rich.) Walp (Menispermaceae, Yeayit areg/achebchabit) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | Febrile illness | Rubbed fresh leaves by hand and smeared on skin | W | E021 | X 377800 Y 1458478 |
Hum | O | Rabies | Fingertip size of fresh roots pounded combined with leaves of Justicia schimperiana, Brucea antidysenterica and roots of Phytolacca dodecandra then taken with whey | ||||||
Hum | O | Swelling, wound | Pounded the fresh/dried root, mixed with water and about one cup is drunk | ||||||
Ferula communis L. (Apiaceae, Dog) | Di | H | Lk | O | Synchronizing cow | Crushed the fresh leaves, mixed with “Tella” and given orally | W | E022 | X 394528 Y 1461815 |
Hum | O | Hepatitis | Fresh roots dig out from three different places, pounded and mixed with local beer “Tella” then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Sexual impotency | Crushed fresh root and mixed with water; then” showered for 3 days | ||||||
Hum | D | Headache | Ashes of shoots mixed with butter and applied on head | ||||||
Hum | D | Circumcision | Dried stems heated with fire then pounded, mixed with butter and creamed circumcised penis | ||||||
Hum | O | Rabies | Fresh roots rubbed with roots of Rumex nepalensis, then squeezed fluid into cup having latexes of Euphorbia ampliphylla, mixed with milk and then drunk half of a cup | ||||||
Hum | O | Initiating cow ready to mate | Crushed fresh roots, mixed with salt and then fed to cow | ||||||
Lk | O | Mich | Fresh roots crushed, pounded and mixed with water; then given orally | ||||||
Brassica carinata A. Br. (Brassicaceae, Gomen zer) | Di | H | Hum | O | Abortion | Fresh roots pounded and mixed with water; then drunk | H | E023 | |
Clutia abyssinica Jaub. and Spach. (Euphorbiaceae, Fiyelefej) | Di | H | Hum | O | Make someone to have illness | Fresh roots crushed, pounded then mixed with food and eaten | W | E024 | X 383785 Y 1456730 |
Hum | D | Wound | Dried roots powdered and applied on wound and wrap it with piece of cloth | ||||||
Hum | O | Rabies | Powdered fresh/dried roots then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | D | Dandruff | Fresh fruits pounded and applied on affected part | ||||||
Lk | D | Cattle lice | Fresh leaves crushed, pounded and mixed with a little water then applied on skin | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea corporis | Fresh fruits pounded and applied on affected part | ||||||
Malva verticillata L. (Malvaceae, Yekebit lut/yesewlut) | Di | H | Hum | D | Bleeding, wound | Rubbed the fresh leaves and applied on topically | W | E025 | X 429205 Y 1453958 |
Lk | O | Weaken baby | Fresh stems pounded together with Rumex nepalensis and mixed with trigonella foenum, then given orally | ||||||
Unidentified (–, Dinbo) | Di | H | Hum | D | “Diro” | Crushed the fresh/dried roots together with leaves and smear on body | W | E026 | X 432469 Y 1457375 |
Hum | D | Circumcision | Rubbed the fresh leaves and tied on tips of circumcised penis | ||||||
Lk | D | Atopic Dermatitis | Fresh leaves pounded and creamed on skin | ||||||
Hum | D | Bleeding | Crushed the fresh leaves and then tied on affected part | ||||||
Lk | O | Retained placenta | Soaking multiple fresh roots in water, adding a few salt and given orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Cough | Roots crushed, pounded, mixed with water and taken orally | ||||||
Ficus palmata Forssk. (Moraceae, Beles/Qotilebele-s) | Di | T | Hum | D | Wound, bleeding | Fresh leaves pounded well and then applied on affected areas | W/H | E027 | X 398434 Y 1465491 |
Hum | D | Wart | The fresh latex is applied on wart | ||||||
Ficus sur Forssk. (Moraceae, Sholla) | Di | T | Hum | O | Ascariasis | Powdered the dried roots mixed with powdered roots of Croton macrostachyusand Otostegia integrifolia and mixed with honey and then taken orally | W | E028 | X 392141 Y 1461833 |
Carduus macracanthus Sch.Bip. ex Kazmi (Asteraceae, Kosheshelie) | Di | H | To get more butter | Fresh roots tied together with roots of Rumex nervosus Vahl and Solanum marginatum, then inserted into a pot containing milk or tie on neck of pot | W | E029 | X 417706 Y 1470814 | ||
Lk | N | Mich | Fresh/dried roots pounded combined with Rumex nepalensis, Verbasicumstelurum, Carduus schimperi, Steganotaenia araliacea and Hagenia abyssinica; then mixed with water and drench nasally | ||||||
To stop raining snow | Fresh roots chopped, combined with roots of Solanum marginatum,Verbasicumstelurum Murb, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Rumex nepalensis and Ferula communis and then saying magical words on them for 7 days and tied on top of tree of village | ||||||||
Polygala abyssinica Fresen (Polygalaceae, Yebabmedahnit) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Snake bite | Fresh roots crushed and chewd | W | E030 | X 398297 Y 1467214 |
Phytolacca dodecandra L 'Herit. (Phytolaccaceae, Endod) | Di | Cl | Hum | O | Abortion | Fresh root is crushed, pounded and mixed with water and taken orally | H | E031 | X 377935 Y 1458357 |
Hum | O | Body swelling | Fingertip size root crushed, pounded and drunk | ||||||
Hum | O | Hepatitis | Fingertip size of fresh/dried root squashed mixed with water, then ¼ of cup drunk | ||||||
Cl | Hum | O | Rabies | Crushed fresh/dried roots, pounded and mixed with water then drunk Or roots pounded together with roots of Euphorbia ampliphylla; then backed with Teff and eaten | |||||
Hum | O | Gastric enteritis | Pounded the fresh roots, mixed with water and then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Malaria | Squeezed the fresh leaves then 1/3 cup of juices taken orally | ||||||
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. (Polygonaceae, Mekikeko) | Di | H | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Pounded the dried fruits, boiled and taken as tea | W | E032 | X 414922 Y 1456505 |
Hum | O | Cough | Boiled fresh/dried roots then taken as tea | ||||||
Hum | D | Skin fissure | Rubbed the fresh leaves and applied on leg | ||||||
Lk | O | Cattle abdominal distension | Crushed fresh/dried root and mixed with water; then one litter is given to drink Or boil the crushed roots and stay away until it cools down; given orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Hepatitis | Crushed the fresh/dried roots, boiled and then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Malaria | Ground the fresh leaves, mixed with broth of meat and taken orally | ||||||
Lk | O | Retained placenta | Crushed the fresh roots and leaves, pounded mixed with soap and given orally | ||||||
Rumex nervosus Vahl. (Polygonaceae, Embacho) | Di | H | Hum | D | Psychiatric problem | Crushed the fresh roots, mixed with water then showering all bod parts | W | E033 | X 413890 Y 1455273 |
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Young leaves crushed and hold it with teeth | ||||||
Lk | N | Nasal discharge in sheep | Rubbed the fresh leaves and placed the fluids into nostril | ||||||
Hum | To break black magic | Dried stems put on burning fire and fumigated the room when all family members are available | |||||||
Hum | O | Intestinal parasite | Chewed the young leaves and then swallowing juices | ||||||
Hum | D | Cleaning dead body | Cut fresh leaves and washed dead person within water | ||||||
Hum | D/O | Hepatitis | Young leaves squeezed and applied on skin; then soldering it by warmed needle Or young leaves boiled and taken orally | ||||||
Hum | D | Circumcision | Heated dried shoots with fire, pounded it then applied on penis | ||||||
Keep house from wind | Crushed roots of Kalanchoe petitiana and Aloe steudneri, tied together, then rounding the house three times then put on ceiling | ||||||||
Lk | N | Cough | Crushed the fresh roots, mixed with goat milk and nasally | ||||||
Hum | Op | Bleeding during birth | Pounded the dried roots with roots of Verbasicumstelurum, Ferula communis, Stephania abyssinica and Otostegia integrifolia; then soaked in water and spray to woman eye | ||||||
Lk | N | MICH | Powdered the fresh roots put on fire and fumigate | ||||||
Hum | D | Eczema | Roasted the leaves, powdered and mixed with butter then applied on the affected part | ||||||
Lk | Op | Impaired eye | Squeezed the fresh young leaves, then applied on impaired eye | ||||||
Hum | D | Burnt body | Heated the dried stem with fire, then powdered and applied on burnt area | ||||||
Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Dill. & A. Rich (Ranunculaceae, Sire bizu) | Di | H | Hum | O | Gastric enteritis | Crushed the fresh roots with Bersama abyssinica, Verbasicumstelurum, powdered it, then taken orally | W | E034 | X 379807 Y 1460671 |
Lk | O | Abdominal distension in cattle | Powdered the fresh/dried roots and mixed with water and given orally | ||||||
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. (Rhamnaceae, Kosso) | Di | T | Hum | O | Tape worm | Pounded the fresh/dried fruits, mixed with water then drunk | W/H | E035 | X 395821 Y 1462918 |
Lk | O | Abdominal distension in cattle | Pounded the dried fruits, mixed with water and given orally | ||||||
Lk | D | Broken leg | Tied the fresh leaves on the broken leg with aid leaves | ||||||
Rosa abyssinica Lindley (Rosaceae, Kega) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Ascariasis | Ate fresh fruits before meal | W | E036 | X 396272 Y 1463133 |
Hum | O | Gastritis | Ate the fresh fruits | ||||||
Osyris quadripartita Decn. (Santalaceae, Keret) | Di | Sh | Evil spirits | Laid fresh leaves around fence | W | Eo37 | X 396885 Y 1462679 | ||
Make milk good taste | Fresh leaves heated on fire and fumigated milk containers | ||||||||
Helichrysum citrispinum (Asteraceae, Yewalya eshoh) | Di | H | Lk | O | MICH | Crushed the fresh/dried roots and taken orally | W | E038 | X 414431 Y 1464693 |
Dodonea angustifolia L.f. (Sapindaceae, Kitkita) | Di | Sh | Lk | O | Fattening cattle | Leafs dried, pounded and mixed with Eleusine coracana (“Dagussa”) within water and taken orally | W | E039 | X 395558 Y 1462422 |
Hum | D | Burnt body | Roasted the dried leaves, pounded then applied on burnt part | ||||||
Hum | O | Gastric enteritis | Chewed three to four seeds by teeth and swallowed | ||||||
Hum | O/N | COVID-19 | Burn the dried stem with fire and fumigated | ||||||
Hum | O | Malaria | Pounded the fresh fruits, mixed with honey, then swallowed | ||||||
Hum | D | Wart | Fresh roots crushed, pounded and applied on wart; then soldering wart by heated stick of Rumex nervosus | ||||||
Helichrysum horridum (Asteraceae, Tifergina) | Di | H | Lk | Op | Impaired eye | Fresh roots pounded combined with leaves of Inulaconfertiflora, mixed with butter then dropped into cattle eye | W | E040 | X 415013 Y 1465330 |
Hum | D | Childs bedwetting | Peel the fresh bark and tied on child’s waist | ||||||
Hum | O | Uterine myoma | Pounded dried roots with seeds of Lobelia rhynchopetalum and Sesamum indicum, then eaten | ||||||
Hum | N/D | Psychiatric problem/tselay tsenay | Crushed the fresh roots, pounded with Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Verbasicumstelurum, Ferula communis, Ruta chalepensis and Allium sativum, then wrapped with cloth and smell or tied on neck | ||||||
Withania somnifera (L.) (Solanaceae, Gizewa) | Di | Sh | Hum | D | Malaria | Pounded fresh/dried roots and mixed with butter then applied topically | W | E041 | |
Hum | O | Sexual Impotency | Pounded fresh/dried roots with roots of Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Rumex nepalensis, Ferula communis, Clutia abyssinica, Thalictrum rhynchocarpum and Habenaria petitianaa then Drunk with barley TELLA | ||||||
Achyranthes aspera Lam. (Amaranthaceae, Telenj) | Di | H | Hum | D | Tinea Unguniunm | Crushed fresh leaves then applied or rubbed on affected part | W | E042 | X 393916 Y 1462249 |
Hum | D | Bleeding during give birth | Powdered fresh/dried roots, wrapped by piece of cloth, then tied on waist by cotton thread | ||||||
H | Hum | Ug | Bleeding during birth | Pounded fresh roots finely with roots of Verbasicumstelurum and then put it on female vagina | |||||
Lk | O | Impaired eye | Fresh leaves pounded, mixed with urine and then inserted to impaired eye | ||||||
Hum | D | Wound, bleeding | Squeezed fresh leaves and dropped on bleeding and tied the pounded leaves on affected part | ||||||
Hum | D | Burnt body | Fresh leaves crushed, pounded and applied on affected part | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea corporis | Fresh leaves are pounded and tied on affected area | ||||||
Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae, Nech shinkuret) | Mo | H | Hum | O | Coughing | Crushed the dried leaves, mixed with honey and One table spoon taken orally for 7 days | H | E043 | X 392487 Y 1460525 |
Hum | O | Toothache | Held the fresh/dried leaves by teeth | ||||||
Hum | D | Evil eye | Fresh/dried bulbs pounded together with Ruta chalepensis and tied on neck | ||||||
Aloe steudneri (Schweinf Aloaceae, Ret) | Mo | H | Lk | O | Fattening cattle and sheep | The stem is cut into parts, mixed with salt and eaten | W | E044 | X 420764 Y 1473448 |
Lk | D | To get hair black | Fresh inner gel species applied on hair after washing | ||||||
Hum | D | Bleeding, wound | Fresh inner gel of species removed and tied on affected part | ||||||
Hum | O | Snake bite | Fresh latex of species squeezed and then eaten | ||||||
Catha edulis Forsk (Celastraceae, Chat) | Di | T | Hum | D | Evil spirit | Fresh leaves masticated and spitted out on the patient | W/H | E045 | X 392857 Y 1459680 |
Hum | D | Abdominal distension | Boiled fresh leaves, mixed with sugar and half of cup is drunk | ||||||
Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae, Qariya) | Di | H | Hum | D | Tinea versicolor | Fresh leaves pounded and applied on affected part | M | E046 | X 379898 Y 1460801 |
Hum | D | Wound | Crushed fresh leaved, pounded and applied on wound | ||||||
Carduus schimperi Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich. (Asteraceae, Yemdir eshoh) | Di | H | Lk | O | Bet with stick | The fresh root pounded, mixed with water and given orally | W | E047 | X 393465 Y 1461989 |
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Dug out fresh roots from three distinct places, pounded, mixed with water, drunk | ||||||
Lk | O/N | Mitat | Fresh roots crushed, mixed with water and given orally or through left nose Or heated the root and fumigating the smoke | ||||||
Lk | O | Nasal discharge | Crushed the fresh/dried roots, pounded and mixed with water an given orally to sheep | ||||||
Lk | O/N | Cough (Kuro) | The fresh/dried root is pounded and mixed with water then given orally and nasal | ||||||
Lk | O | Getting cow to accept her calf | Fresh roots dig out from three places and crushed; then fed the cow | ||||||
Hum | O | Dysentery | Fresh/dried roots powdered with roots of Rumex nepalensis then mixed with honey and taken orally | ||||||
Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich (Cucurbitaceae, Yemedir embuay) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | eczema | Powdered fresh roots, mixed with butter and creamed on the affected part until it cures | W | E048 | X 395786 Y 1462429 |
Hum | O | Hepatitis | Fresh roots pounded and mixed with water and taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Powdered dried roots, mixed with water and then drunk | ||||||
Hum | O | Abortion | Pounded fresh fruits and mixed with water, then drunk | ||||||
Lk | O | Kofa | Fresh roots pounded and mixed with water; then drunk | ||||||
Hum | D | Retained placenta | Cut fresh leaves by calling “let it down” seven times and tied on left waist | ||||||
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae, Astenagir) | Di | H | Hum | D | Dandruff | Fresh leaves rubbed and applied topically on head after washing | W/H | E049 | X 376973 Y 1459043 |
Hum | O | Toothache | Boiled the fresh fruits with barks of “SINICH” and then inhaled the steam orally or washed mouth with boiled solution | ||||||
Lk | Op | Impaired eye | Rubbed fresh leaves and drop juices on eye | ||||||
Hum | D | Make baby fat | Washed the body with young leaves | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea corporis | Squeezed fresh leaves and applied on affected area | ||||||
Hum | D | Birth bleeding | Fresh roots dig out from seven distinct places and tied on waist with cotton thread | ||||||
Hum | D | Wound | Fresh leaves pounded and applied on wound | ||||||
Embelia schimperi Vatke (Myrsinaceae, Enqoqo) | Di | T | Hum | O | Tape worm | Dried fruit is powered and dissolved by water; then half of cup is taken | W | E050 | X 399385 Y 1465983 |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae, Nech Bahirzaf) | Di | T | Hum | O | Common cold | Fresh leaves boiled and inhaled | H | E051 | X 378946 Y 1457123 |
Jasminum abyssinicum L. (Oleaceae, Tenbelel) | Di | Cl | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Rubbed the fresh bud by hands, mixed with few water and taken orally | W | E052 | X 379185 Y 1461241 |
Hum | O | Toothache | Fresh leaves crushed and hold by teeth | ||||||
Hum | Op | Eye infection | Fresh leaves squeezed and applied for a few minutes | ||||||
Hum | O | Urine retention | Fresh roots powdered along with powdered roots of Zehneria scabra and “SINCH,” mixed with water and drunk (1 cup) | ||||||
Hum | O | coughing | Fresh roots pounded together with roots of Verbasicumstelurum and Rumex nervosus and mixed with water and half liter is drunk | ||||||
Hum | O | Psychiatric disorder | Soaked fresh roots in water, with Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Ferula communis, Allophylus abyssinicus and Mahilda then washed bodies for 14 or 28 days depending on severity of disease | ||||||
Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich (Crassulaceae, Endawula) | Di | H | Hum | O | Febrile illness | Boiled the pounded fresh root, mixed with sugar and drunk | W | E053 | X 401389 Y 1468253 |
Lk | D | Dislocated bone | Small opening is made in the dislocated area and then parts of fresh root are inserted to be opened for 12 h | ||||||
Hum | D | Rectal prolapse | Fresh leaves warmed on fire along with Kalanchoe petitiana leaves then rubbed the back of patient | ||||||
Hum | O | Tonsillitis | Fresh roots pounded, mixed with water and taken half of cup | ||||||
Hum | D | Retained placenta | Rounded her abdomen by fresh roots and tied on waist with cotton thread | ||||||
Hum | D | Burnt body | Fresh leaves warmed up by fire and rubbing the burnt area | ||||||
Hum | D | Skin fissure | Fresh leaves warmed up by heat and rubbed the affected areas | ||||||
Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicaceae, Feto) | Di | H | Hum | O | Hypertension | Dried fruits pounded, mixed with water and taken orally | H | E054 | X 394169 Y 1459533 |
Hum | O | Malaria | Ate the pounded seed | ||||||
Hum | O | Intestinal parasite | Dried seeds pounded and mixed with water then drunk one cup | ||||||
Hum | D | Chalazion | Dried stems warmed up on fire and then soldering affected part | ||||||
Hum | D | Wart | Warmed up the dried shoot with fire and put it on wart | ||||||
Hum | Abortion | Ground the dried seed, mixed with water then taken orally | |||||||
Lobelia rhynchopetalum (Hochst) Hemsl (Lobeliaceae, Jibara) | Mo | H | Hum | O | Abdominalcramp | Fresh/dried roots pounded with water and taken 1/3 of a cup | W | E055 | X 403662 Y 1467228 |
Hum | N | Evil eye | Crushed fresh roots, mixed with Artemisia abyssinicathen wrapped together in a piece of cloth and sniffed through nose Or roots crushed together with fruits of Carissa spinarum; then put on fire and fumigate | ||||||
Hum | D/N | Febrile illness | Crushed and pounded the fresh/dried root and smeared on body or Smelling the crushed root | ||||||
Hum | D | Wound | Dropped latex on wound | ||||||
Hum | - | Epidemic disease | Dried leaves heated with fire and fumigated the door | ||||||
Lk | N O | Cough (Kuro) | Heated the dried barks with fire with Euphorbia ampliphylla, then fumigated equines | ||||||
Lk | O | Rabies (for Dog | Fresh/dried roots pounded together with fruits of Phytolacca dodecandra and roots of Rumex nepalensis then mix water; and one cup is drunk | ||||||
Hum | D | eczema | Powdered dried fruit, mixed with honey and then applied topically | ||||||
Lk | O | Nasal discharge in sheep | Applied fresh latex on affected part | ||||||
Lk | O | Fattening sheep and ready to get pregnant | Crushed fresh leaves, mixed with salt and then fed to sheep | ||||||
Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae, Key shinkurt) | Mo | H | Hum | O | Cough | Bulbs crushed, boiled and mixed with sugar; then drunk as tea | M | E056 | X 394497 Y 1458316 |
Otostegia integrifolia Benth (Lamiaceae, Tinjit) | Di | H | Lk | Insect repellants | Fumigated the house by burning fresh stem | W | E057 | X 393709 Y 1459876 | |
Hum | O | Syphilis | Pounded the dried root, mixed with water then taken orally | ||||||
Keep flies away | Heated the fresh stems and leaves with fire and then fumigated the house | ||||||||
Hum | D | Rh factor | Crushed fresh/dried roots which dug out from seven places with Clutia abyssinica then tied on neck | ||||||
Lk | N | Nasal discharge in sheep | Ground the fresh/dried leaves with leaves of Olea europaea subsp. cuspidataand roots of Silenemacrosolen, burn on fire, then fumigated the sheep and their shelter | ||||||
Lk | N | Cough (Kuro) | Fresh/dried stems heated together with leaves on burning charcoal and fumigated | ||||||
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Fresh leaves pounded, mixed with water; then filtered out and half a size of cup is drunk | ||||||
Lk | O/N | Epidemic/wetetie | Fresh/dried roots pounded and sprinkled on hot fire and fumigated | ||||||
Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit (Rhamnaceae, Giesho) Rumex nepalensis Spreng (Polygonaceae, Yewisha lut/lut) | Di | T | Lk | O | Abdominal distention in cattle | Pounded the dried leaves, mixed with malt and then given orally | W/H | E058 | X 390781 Y 1460749 |
Hum | O | Retained placenta | Ground the dried finely, mixed with Linum usitatissimumseed powder, mixed with water then drunk | ||||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Held the fresh leaves by teeth | ||||||
Lk | N | Leech | Crushed the fresh leaves, pounded and mixed with water then drench in nostril | ||||||
Di | H | Hum | D | Bleeding, Wound | Fresh root is pounded, powdered and then applied on affected part | W/H | E059 | X 441259 Y 1465528 | |
Hum | O/N | Kofa | Dug out fresh roots from three distinct places and pounded, then drench via nose and oral | ||||||
Lk | O/N | Mad cow disease | Pounded fresh/dried leaves, mixed with water and then drench via left nose and ear | ||||||
Lk | O | Abdominal distension in cattle | Crushed fresh roots and mixed with water then given orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Febrile illness | Washed and pounded fresh roots, mixed with water, then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | - | Retained placenta | Fresh/dried roots put into prepared hole at center of house, then boiled waters poured into hole | ||||||
Hum | D | Ganglion cyst | Fresh roots crushed and tied on affected part until it cures | ||||||
Lk | N | Mitat | Pounded the fresh root, mixed with water, given via left nose | ||||||
Hum | D | Wart | Fresh roots pounded and rubbed the wart gently | ||||||
Lk | N | “Yebetir” | Fresh roots crushed, mixed with water, then given orally | ||||||
Hum &Lk | O | Urinary retention | Crushed and pounded the fresh root, then drunk with water | ||||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Crushed the fresh leaves, then hold by teeth for few minutes | ||||||
Lk | O | Retained placenta | Crushed and pounded fresh roots then given orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Crushed and pounded the fresh roots, mixed with water, filtered, then drunk | ||||||
Hum | O | Dysentery | Pounded the fresh roots with roots of Achyranthes aspera and rhizomes of ginger, then taken orally | ||||||
Urtica simensis Stedel (Urticaceae, Sama) | Di | H | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Crushed fresh roots finely, then taken orally | W | E060 | X 441183 Y 1465052 |
Hum | D | Burnt body | Roots roasted, powdered and put on burnt body | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea versicolor | Cleaned fresh leaves, pounded and tied with piece of cloth on affected area | ||||||
Hum | O | Appetite | Chopped and cooked fresh leaves, then ate with Injera | ||||||
H | Hum | O | Intestinal infection | Cooked the fresh leaves and then ate | |||||
Hum | O | Yebetir | Fresh roots crushed, pounded and mixed with water and given orally | ||||||
Hum | D | Evil eye | Boiled fresh roots then showered the body with the decoction | ||||||
Lk | O | Emaciation in cattle | Fresh roots of species given to cattle to eat | ||||||
Lk | O | Retained placenta | Pounded the fresh roots to make a solution, then certain amounts given orally | ||||||
Verbasicum stelurum Murb (Scrophulariaceae, Qutina) | H | Hum &Lk | O/N | Mich | Fresh root is pounded, mixed with water, filtered and given orally and via left nose | W | E061 | X 397223 Y 1463508 | |
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Pounded fresh roots and mixed with water; then drunk | ||||||
Lk | N | KOFA | The fresh root is crushed and mixed with water; then drench to nostril | ||||||
To get more yield/profit | The fresh roots with roots of Rumex nervosus and Helichrysum horridum put out side threshing floor | ||||||||
Hum | D | Bleeding during giving birth | Crushed the fresh roots and tied on waist | ||||||
Hum | O | Burnt body | Roasted and crushed fresh roots and mixed with butter then creamed | ||||||
Hum | N | Psychiatric problem | Dried roots are powdered and inserted to patient nose | ||||||
- | For envy | Fresh roots crushed, mixed with water and sprinkling on burning fire, then fumigated house | |||||||
Lk | O | Yebetir (betting with stick) | Fresh root is pounded together with roots of Urtica simensis and Rumex nepalensis, then mixed with water and given orally | ||||||
Hum | D | Wound | Fresh/dried roots are roasted, powdered and mixed with butter, then applied over wound | ||||||
Verbena officinalis L. (Verbenaceae, Atuch) | Di | H | Hum | N | Migraine | Fingertip size of fresh/dried roots boiled and taken nasally | W | E062 | X 393286 Y 1461719 |
Hum | O | Tonsillitis | Dried roots crushed, pounded and mixed with water then drunk | ||||||
Lk | O | Mich | Fresh roots pounded, mixed with water and then given orally | ||||||
Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae, Zinjible) | Mo | H | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Chewed fresh/dried rhizomes, then swallowed the juice | M | ||
Hum | O | Constipation | Crushed the fresh/dried rhizomes, mix water; then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Crushed dried rhizomes and hold by teeth for 5–10 min | ||||||
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | fresh/dried rhizomes crushed and pounded with the roots of Rumex nepalensis, mixed with honey, then taken orally before meal | ||||||
Euphorbia platyphyllos L. (Euphorbiaceae, Tena demo/abay dem) | Di | H | Hum | D | Tinea versicolor (kukuasisha) | Squeezed the fresh latex and applied on affected part | E063 | X 397043 Y 1463289 | |
Echinops kebericho Mesfin (Asteraceae, Kebericho) | Di | H | Lk | N/O | Mich | sprinkling crushed roots on burning charcoal and fumigating | W | E064 | X 431976 Y 1462322 |
Hum | O | Evil eye | Pounded dried roots, mixed with water, then taken orally | ||||||
Lk | N/O | Cough | Fumigated dried roots | ||||||
Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae, Tenadam) | Di | H | Hum | D | Evil eye | Powdered dried roots with Urtica simensis, mixed with hyena`s liver then tie on neck Or roots powdered with bulbs of Allium sativum and leaves of Rhamnus prinoides and wrapped with piece of cloth, then smell and tied on neck | M | E065 | X 393495 Y 1458371 |
H | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Pounded fresh leaves, mixed with water, filtered, then drunk | |||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Chewed the fresh fruit | ||||||
Euphorbia tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae, Qinchib) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Wound | Fresh latex is applied on wound | W | E066 | X 378956 Y 1460183 |
Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle (Rutaceae, Lomi) | Di | T | Hum | O | Hypertension | Fresh/dried fruits squeezed into cup, then taken orally | M | E067 | X 397727 Y 1464922 |
Hum | D | Athletes foot | The fresh fruit of Citrus lemon is squeezed and applied on affected areas for continuous days | ||||||
Hum | D | Dandruff | Fluids from fruit smeared on head after washing | ||||||
Rubia cordifolia L. (Rubiaceae, Mencherur) | Di | Cl | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Chewed fresh/dried roots, then swallowed its juice | W | E068 | X 379867 Y 379867 |
Hum | N | Eye infection | Powdered fresh/dried roots, mixed with butter; then melt with sun and filtered out with piece of clean cloth and half a cup is inserted into nose | ||||||
Hum | O | Cough | Boiled the powdered fresh/dried root and drunk as tea | ||||||
Hum | O | Tuberculosis | Dried roots powdered, mixed with honey and ate a cspoonful per day for seven days | ||||||
Hum | O | Urine retention | Crushed dried roots, powdered, mixed with water, then taken orally | ||||||
Hum | O/N | Headache | Powdered dried roots, mixed with butter and expose to sun for a few minutes and then place in nostril Or boiled roots, mixed with sugar, then taken as tea | ||||||
Hum | N | Migraine | Boiled dried roots, then poured into nose | ||||||
Vicia faba L. (Fabaceae, Bakela) | Di | H | Hum | D | Boil | Crushed seven seeds by teeth and then put it on affected areas | H | Eo69 | X 404208 Y 1463176 |
Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Harms (Araliaceae, Getem) | Di | T | Hum | D | Eczema | Dried barks grinded, mixed with honey, then creamed over eczema | W | E070 | X 395898 Y 1461946 |
Hum | D | Syphilis | Dried barks pounded, mixed with honey and applied on penis | ||||||
Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A. Rich (Tiliaceae, Lenquata) | Di | Sh | Lk | O | Retained placenta | The fresh bark is pounded, mixed water then liquid extracts given orally within salt | W | E071 | X 398678 Y 1466213 |
Lk | O | Emaciation in cattle | Soaked fresh barks in water for one day, then given orally | ||||||
Hordeum vulgare L.(Poaceae,Gebs) | Di | H | Hum | O | Gastritis | Roasted the dried grain and then ate | H | E072 | X 416906 Y 1470097 |
Hypericum revolutum (Forssk.) Vahl ( Guttiferaceae, Amija) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Febrile illness | Fresh leaves boiled together with leaves of Thymusschimperi and Zehneria scabra, then inhaled the steam | W | E073 | X 396459 Y 1462980 |
Juniperus procera Endl. (Cupressaceae, Yehabesha tid) | Di | T | Lk | O | Protecting livestock from Hyena preying | Fresh/dried roots pounded with roots of Kalanchoe petitiana, Osyris quadripartita, Stephania abyssinica and Clutia abyssinica, mixed with dungs of Hyena and black barely; then fed to cattle | W/H | E074 | X 394954 Y 1462141 |
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst.ex Nees) T. Anders (Acanthaceae, Simeza/sensel) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Rabies | Fresh leaves pounded with leaves of Momordica foetida and phytolacca dodecandra, mixed with water, then taken orally | W | E075 | X 394335 Y 394335 |
Lk | N | Leech | Fresh leaves pounded and mixed water, then drench in nostril | ||||||
Lk | O | Circling disease in sheep | Fresh leaves pounded with leaves of Inula confertiflora, mixed with water, then given orally and sprayed in the house | ||||||
Zehneria scabra (Linn. f.) Sond. (Cucurbitaceae, Aaregresa) | Di | Cl | Hum | N/O | Febrile illness | Boiled the fresh leaves and stem, then inhaling the steam through mouth and nose | W/H | E076 | X 392147 Y 1460762 |
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Fresh roots crushed and pounded with rhizomes of ginger and 1/3 of cup taken orally | ||||||
Hum | D | Arthritis | Boiled fresh leaves and stem, then showered the body with the decoction | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea Unguniunm | Crushed and pounded the fresh leaves, then tied on the affected parts | ||||||
Hum | O | Febrile illness | Fresh leaves boiled in water, mixed with suagr and taken orally 1/3 of a cup | ||||||
Hum | Op | Eye cellulitis | Boiled the young fresh leaves with water having sand, then fumigated the steam with eye | ||||||
Momordica foetida Schumach. (Cucurbitaceae, Yekura Hareg) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | Eczema | Pounded fresh leaves and applied on affected area | W | E077 | X 414219 Y 1461839 |
Silene macrosolen Steud. ex A. Rich (Caryophyllaceae, Wogert) | Di | H | - | To make clothes good smell | Crushed dried roots withleaves ofOtostegia integrifolia and Securidaca longepedunculata, sprinkled on burning charcoal then fumigated | W | E078 | X 394682 Y 1461102 | |
Hum | O | Febrile illness | Fresh/dried roots pounded, boiled and the steam is inhaled | ||||||
H | Lk | O/N | Lymphadenitis in sheep | Dried roots boiled combined with roots of Echinops kebericho, then fumigated to sheep | |||||
Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Dried roots crushed, pounded and mixed with water then drunk | ||||||
Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.)Wild & Drummond (Vitaceae, Yejib hareg) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | Wound | Dried roots powdered, mixed with butter, then applied over wound | W | E079 | X 395836 Y 1463131 |
Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel) Bamps (Malvaceae, Wulkfa) | Di | T | Lk | D | Broken bone | Tied the broken part by fresh peel of bark | W | E080 | X 379595 Y 1458643 |
Inula confertiflora A. Rich. (Asteraceae, Woinagefet) | Di | Sh | Lk | Op | Impaired eye | Fresh leaves are rubbed by hand and droplets are added into eye | W | E081 | X 426163 Y 1454153 |
Lk | D | MICH | Dried shoots warmed on fire then used while solderingcattle | ||||||
Lk | D | Cogh (‘Kuro”) | Fresh leaves pounded together with leaves of Helichrysum citrispinum and mixed with water, then given nasally | ||||||
Sh | Hum | D | Burnt body | Fresh leaves crushed, squeezed, then applied on affected part | |||||
Satureja Simensis (Benth.) Briq. (Lamiaceae, Lomishet) | Di | H | Hum | D | Baby weight loss | Crushed the fresh leaves and used as body wash | W | E082 | X 426094 Y 1454125 |
Thymus schimperi Ronniger (Lamiaceae, Tosign) | Di | H | - | Make milk sweet taste | Heated the fresh/dried stems and leaves on fire, then fumigating milk containers | W | E083 | X 394676 Y 1462586 | |
Hum | O | Arthritis | Pounded fresh, soaked in water, then employed bath | ||||||
Urera hypselodendron (Hochst.) ex A. Rich. (Urticaceae, Lankiso) | Di | Cl | Lk | O | Retained placenta | Juices extract from crushed fresh stem, mixed with water, then given orally | W | E084 | X 399648 Y 1464531 |
Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. (Bignoniaceae, Zana) | Di | T | Hum | D | Bleeding after delivery | The fresh leaves are crushed and tied on females leg | W | E085 | X 380435 Y 1460365 |
Chenopodium ambrosioidesL. (Chenopodiaceae, Amedmado) | Di | H | Hum | D | Tinea corporis | Fresh leaves pounded and tied on affected part by plastic for 3 days | W | E086 | X 381328 Y 1460717 |
Hum | D | Eczema | Dried leaves are roasted and powdered, then mixed with honey, then applied on affected part until it cures | ||||||
Plantago lanceolata L. (Plantaginaceae, Wenberet) | Di | H | Lk | N | Cough (Kuro) | The whole fresh plant is heated on burring fire, then fumigated Or fresh leaves crushed, mixed with water and drench into nostril | W | E087 | X 393421 Y 1462146 |
Hum | D | Wound, bleeding | Squeezed the fresh leaves and tied by piece of cloth | ||||||
Hibiscus micranthus Lif (Malvaceae, Yebekilo changer) | Di | H | Lk | O | Yebetir | The fresh root is pounded and mixed with water, then given through left ear | W | E088 | X 379069 Y 1461011 |
Hum | D | Lifie | Fresh leaves are crushed, mixed with butter and tied on affected areas | ||||||
Hum | D | Wound on neck | The fresh leaves are crushed, mixed with butter, then applied on the swelling as bandage | ||||||
Impatiens tinctoria A. Rich. (Balsaminaceae, Gusheret) | Di | H | Hum | D | Arthritis | Tubers of the plant pounded, boiled and reserve for 2 days; then put hands into solution for few minutes | W | E089 | X 400404 Y 1468276 |
Lk | O | Emaciation in cattle | Tubers of plant crushed, pounded and fed to animal | ||||||
Kosteletzka begonifolia (Ulbr.) Ulbr. (Malvaceae, Yemegerem) | Di | H | Hum | O | Body swelling | Fresh root is pounded, mixed with water and taken orally | W | E090 | X 399180 Y 1468584 |
Lk | O | Body swelling on dewlap | Fresh root is pounded, mixed with “TELLA” (local beer), then given orally | ||||||
Hum | O | Scorpion bite | Chewed the fresh roots and held by teeth | ||||||
Hum | O | Abortion | Crushed and pounded fresh roots, then take orally with water | ||||||
Maesa lanceolata Forssk (Myrsinaceae, Siwarya/Shiwarya) | Di | T | Lk | O | Leech | Crushed the fresh leaves, mixed with water, then given orally or added into rivers which harbors Leech | W | E091 | X 377865 Y 1458555 |
Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae, Buna) | Di | Sh | Hum | D | Injuries shot by gun | Dry seeds are roasted, powdered and then applied on injured area | M | E092 | |
Solanum marginatum L.F. (Solanaceae, Embuay/Yedega embuay) | Di | Hb | Hum | Ug | Unwilling of cow to milking | Fresh fruit is crushed, mixed with butter and inserting through vagina | W | E093 | X 390061 Y 1460551 |
Hum | D | Injuries by gun shot | Dry leaves are pounded, powdered, then applied on injured part | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea Unguniunm | Fresh fruits pierced and entering affected fingers into hole of the fruit | ||||||
Hum | D | Tonsillitis | The fresh root is crushed and drunk with water | ||||||
Lk | D | Sheep bite by wolf | Juice of fresh fruits dropped over injured part | ||||||
Lk | N | Sheep nasal discharge | Fluids from fruit mixed with milk and given nasally | ||||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Crushed the fresh root and held by teeth for 5–10 min | ||||||
Hum | D | Tinea versicolor | Collected juice from fresh fruits mixed with butter, applied on affected part | ||||||
Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Polygalaceae, Temenahay/Etse-menahe) | Di | T | Hum | - | Good cloth smell | Fresh/dried roots pounded and powdered, then used to wash clothes | W | E094 | X 379481 Y 1461090 |
Lk | N/O | MICH | Crushed dried roots, sprinkled on burning fire, then inhaled the smoke | ||||||
Hum | O | Evil eye/“Yeje seb” | Crushed the fresh/dried roots, sprinkled on burning charcoal and then inhaled the smoke | ||||||
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (Poaceae, Dagusa) | Di | H | Hum | O | Dysentery | Ate as porridge | H | E095 | X 378777 Y 1460836 |
Echinops macrochaetus Fresen (Asteraceae, Dindero) | Di | H | Hum | O | Evil eye/“Yejeseb” | Crushed the fresh roots with Solanum marginatum, Asparagus africanus,Allium sativum, Lepidium sativum and Crinum abyssinicum, mixed with water, then taken orally | W | E096 | X 426821 Y 1454867 |
Haplocarpha schimperi (Sch.Bip.) Beauv (Asteraceae, Wozber) | Di | H | Hum | D | Tinea versicolor | Squeezed the fresh leaves, then applied on affected part | W | E097 | X 1454867 Y 1468027 |
Euphorbia ampliphylla Pax (Euphorbiaceae, Kulkual) | Di | T | Hum | D | Cancer | Fresh latex is applied on the affected body part | W | E098 | X 418684 Y 1456590 |
Lk | D | Scabby disease in sheep | Fresh latex is applied on mouth | ||||||
Hum | D | Wart | Fresh latex applied on wart topically | ||||||
Hum | O | Intestinal parasite | Smeared the latex on traditional cake pan, thenate | ||||||
Lk | O/N | Cough | Heated the dried bark with fire, then fumigating the animal | ||||||
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (Rosaceae, Kok) | Di | T | Lk | N | Leech | Crushed the fresh leaves, soaked in water and filtered out, then the solution is given through nose | H | E099 | X 379577 Y 1457612 |
Lk | O | Abdominal distension in cattle | Fresh leaves pounded, mixed with water and then given orally | ||||||
Girardinia bullosa (Steud.) Wedd. (Urticaceae, Duvara/Avervara) | Di | H | Hum | D | Burnt body | Crushed and squeezed the fresh root, then tied with piece of cloth by appling on burnt area | W | E100 | X 377459 Y 1458640 |
Clausena anisata (Willd.) B (Rutaceae, Limuch) | Di | Sh | Hum | O | Hepatitis | Crushed the fresh leaves, mixed with honey, then ate for 3 or 7 days | W | E101 | X 391569 Y 1461877 |
Solanum aethiopicum L. (Solanaceae, Komodoro) | Di | H | Lk | O | Leech | Crushed and pounded the fresh leaves, mixed with water, then drench in nostril | W | E102 | X 379707 Y 1461580 |
Vernonia rueppellii Sch.Bip. ex Walp. (Asteraceae, Shutenie) | Di | T | Hum | D | Bleeding | Crushed the fresh leaves and tied on injured body | W | E103 | X 396078 Y 1463048 |
Hum | D | Bleeding | Roasted and powdered the fresh leaves, then applied on affected part | ||||||
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae, Timamtim) | Di | H | Lk | O | Leech | Crushed the fresh leaves, mixed with water and filtered, then given orally | W | E104 | X 411060 Y 1464571 |
Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC (Fabaceae, Aveterie) | Di | T | Hum | D | Infected wound | Dried roots are powdered and applied over wound | W | E105 | X 395903 Y 1461963 |
Myrica salicifolia A. Rich (Myricaceae, Sinch) | Di | T | Hum | O | Abdominal pain | Powdered the fresh bark, mixed with honey, then swallowed | W | E106 | X 400387 Y 1464014 |
Hum | N | Evil eye | Dried barks are powdered with bulbs of Allium sativum and then smell | ||||||
Hum | O | Toothache | Removed the outer pat of fresh bark, then holding bark by teeth | ||||||
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae, Bulka) | Di | Sh | Hum | D | Wound | Powdered the dried roots and then applied over wound | W | E107 | X 392913 Y 1460840 |
Cucurbita pepo L. (Cucurbitaceae, Duba) | Di | Cl | Hum | D | Headache | The fresh fruit is pounded and cooked, applied on head after cooling, then wrapped with kerchief | H | E108 | X 397942 Y 1467057 |
Ficus vasta Forssk (Moraceae, Warka) | Di | T | Hum | O | Infertility | Fresh/dried barks crushed and soaked with water along barks of Carissa spinarum, Croton macrostachyus and roots ofSecuridaca longepedunculata and then wash the woman body by solution for 7 days | W | E109 | X 398320 Y 1465707 |
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G.Don) Cif. (Oleaceae, Woira) | Di | T | Hum | N | Nasal discharge in sheep | Ground the fresh stem with roots of Silene macrosolen, burn on fire and then fumigated their shelter and sniffed nasally | E110 | X 397807 Y 1463225 | |
Cyperus dichroostathyus A.Rich. (Cyperaceae, Giramta) | Mo | H | Lk | Dm | Retained placenta | Immersed the fresh stem into water and then tied on tip part of placenta in one side; and the mortar on other side, then pull down with mortar (wood made) | W | E111 | X 395269 Y 1462639 |
Solanum incanum L. (Solanaceae, Yeqola embuay) | Di | H | Hum | N | Leech | Juice extract from fresh fruit is given nasally (one cup) | W | E112 | X 397199 Y 1465679 |
- | To get more yield/profit | Crushed the fresh root and placed around threshing floor | |||||||
Hum | D | Wound | Squeezed the fresh fruit and applied the juice on wound | ||||||
Lk | D | For impaired eye | Pounded the fresh leaves by adding water, then inserting into cattle’s eye | ||||||
Kniphofia foliosa Hochst (Asphodelaceae, Ayineba) | Mo | Hb | Hum | D | Tonsillitis (infant) | Pounded the fresh leaves with malt, mixed with mother’s saliva, then placed on baby’s head | W | E113 | X 418180 Y 1472525 |
Hum | N | Cough | Crushed the fresh leaves with leaves of Rumex nervosus, mixed with water, then drench in nostril |
Key: List of medicinal plants used for treating ailments in the study area, with scientific name, family, local name, Classification (Di = dicot, Mo = monocots) habit (Ha), shrub (Sh), tree (T), herb (H), climber (Cl), seed (Se), fruit (Fr), shoot (Sh), source, condition of preparation (fresh/F and dry/D), rout of administration (Ra), oral (O), dermal (D), nasal (N), optical (Op), urogenital (Ug).
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
About this article
Cite this article
Seraw, E., Melkamu, Y. & Masresha, G. Traditional lore on the healing effects of therapeutic plants used by the local communities around Simien Mountains National Park, northwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 20, 43 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00678-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00678-9