Table 1 Mammals parts used and reasons
Animal | Part used | Use(s) and use method(s) | Reason(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
Peter’s duiker Cephalophus callipygus | Teeth3 | - Design necklaces | For prestige |
Skin2,3 | - Making of drums | Durable, produces the desired sound, easily malleable and it is an inherited practice from the elders. Also, the skin is not good for consumption. | |
- Decorating houses of Ekpe society members during liberation ceremonies | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Meat1 | - Consumed by pregnant women for blood regeneration | For better development of the foetus | |
African forest buffalo Syncerus caffer | Horn1,2,3 (Figure 6) | - Musical instrument | Announcing bad news |
- For drinking wine (traditional cup) (see also [48]) | Has the shape of a cup | ||
- Sold to Nigerians | For money | ||
- Design necklaces | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Skull3 | - Decoration | Traditional inherited practice | |
Bones1,4 | - Used by sorcerers | Not revealed | |
- Treats goiter: grind the bones and mix with palm kernel oil (manyanga) and apply on goiter locally called “nkongho illness” | Medicinal | ||
Limbs1 | - Treats abscesses: mix with oil palm and apply on abscess | Medicinal | |
Skin2,3 | - Making of drums | Resistant | |
- Decoration | Shows hierarchy between members of the Ekpe society | ||
Meat1 | - Consumed | Believed to treat goiter patients | |
Yellow back duiker Cephalophus sylvicultor | Skin1 | - Treat skin inflammations: apply on swollen parts | Medicinal |
Bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis | Skin2,3 | - Decorate the seat of the chief of Ekpe society | Denotes hierarchy |
- Making of drums | Resistant | ||
Blue duiker Cephalophus monticola | Skull1,3 | - Sold to Nigerians and used to design necklaces | For money |
Jaws1 | - Treats tooth ache and intestinal worm problems: burn, grind and mix with leaves of Aframomum melegueta locally called “alakata pepper” | Medicinal | |
Bones1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Skin2 | - Making of drums (Figure 7) | Elastic, easily malleable, has little or no fats, light, durable and resistant | |
- Decorate the seat of the chief of Ekpe society | Denotes hierarchy | ||
Hoofs1 | - For purging children | Renders the child strong and active | |
Meat1,4 | - For liberation ceremonies: cook with plantains Musa sp.; and/or cassava Manihot esculenta and given to ancestors | Considered as a dead animal and can link the living to the dead | |
- Marriage ceremonies: cook with plantains | Traditional inherited practice | ||
- Consume during death and traditional dance ceremonies | Easily hunted | ||
Ogilby’s duiker Cephalophus ogilbyi | Horn, tail limbs, Skull and hoofs1,3 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
- Decoration | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Skull1 | - Treats frontal headache: burn, grind and apply on the forehead | Medicinal | |
Oil from the bones1 | - Treats inflammations: apply on swollen parts | Medicinal | |
Jaws1 | - Treats toothache and intestinal worms: burn, grind and mix with Aframomum melegueta and consume | Medicinal | |
Bones1,2 | - Musical instrument: used together with the shell of tortoise | The bones are big | |
- Sold to Nigerians | For money | ||
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Produces a good and desired sound, durable, light and elastic. Has no fats and the skin is not good for consumption | |
Meat4 | - For liberation, marriage and death ceremonies to appease and communicate with ancestors: during such ceremonies, it is cooked with plantains. During incantations, part of the meal is poured on the ground (around graves, sacred sites) together with palm wine (Raphia sp.;), oil palm, water, tobacco, cola nuts (Cola acuminate) and coins | It is considered as the incarnation of dead people and can act as a mean of communication between the living and the spirits of deaths. It is also used because goats are scarce and very expensive | |
Red-capped mangabey Cercocebus torquatus | Skull1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
Head1 | - Treats tuberculosis: burn, grind and mix with oil palm and consume | Medicinal | |
Hammered bat Hypsignathus monstrosus | Fur1 | - Treats burns: plaster on the burned parts | Medicinal |
Water chevrotain Hyemoschus aquaticus | Limbs1 | - Sold to Nigerians and to tradi-practitioners | For money |
Meat4 | - Most used during ceremonies: cook in meals | Traditional inherited practice | |
Bones of limbs1 | - Treats fractures: apply on fractures of the legs | Medicinal | |
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Resistant and produces the desired sound | |
Veins of limbs1 | - Treats paralyses: mix with roots of Aframomum melegueta. The paste produced is applied on cuts made on the body using the teeth of viper | Medicinal | |
Meat4 | - Liberation ceremonies: cooked with Ogilby’s duiker and other medicines. During incantations, part of the meal is poured on the ground around graves, sacred sites | Traditional inherited practice | |
Ellioti chimpanzee Pan troglodytes | Skull, bones and limbs1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
- Fortify men: grind and mix with Aframomum melegueta, and applied on cuts made on the body with a razor blade | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
Skull3 | - Making of necklaces | For money | |
Hands and limbs4 | - Consume mainly by chiefs | Not revealed | |
Bones1 | - Consume by pregnant women | Believed to be a strong animal | |
- Fortify man: grind and mix with Aframomum melegueta, water and leaves of Ageratum cornisoides and applied on body cuts | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
- Fortify children: purge by pregnant women and apply on body cuts made on children | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Resistant to stress | |
Meat4 | - For death, marriage and cultural ceremonies: cook in meals | Traditional inherited practice | |
African civet Civettictis civetta | Anus1 | - Treats convulsions: inhaled by children because of its pronounced odour | Medicinal |
Nails4 | - Close two mystical of the four eyes of sorcerers: mix with Ageratum cornisoides and perform rituals | Deliverance from evil | |
Limbs1 | Ease walking of children: mix with herbs and purge into children | Medicinal | |
Skin2,3,4 | - Decoration: hang in houses of members of Ekpe society (Figure 8) | Strong and prestigious animal and can be used in replacement of the skin of the leopard | |
Denotes hierarchy between the members of Ekpe society | |||
- Making of drums | Gives the desired sound since it is thick and resistant | ||
- Used as a carpet by chiefs and elders | Demonstrates hierarchy between members of Ekpe | ||
- For initiation ceremonies and decoration of the chair of the chief of Ekpe | Replaces the skin of the leopard | ||
Fur1 | - Treats convulsions: apply on the eyes of children with palm kernel oil | Medicinal | |
Tail3 | - Decoration | Traditional inherited practice | |
Testes1 | - Treats sexual weakness of men: grind and mix with leaves of «besug-etig» | Medicinal | |
Preuss’s red colobus Procolobus preussi | Skull1 | - Treats cough/tuberculosis: burn, grind, mix with oil palm and consume | Medicinal |
- Sold to Nigerians | For money | ||
Bones1 | - Renders man strong and active: grind and apply on cuts made on the skin | Believed to be a strong animal | |
Bones of limbs1 | - Fortify children: grind and mix with leaves (locally called «Njichondick» or blood leaves). The resulting solution is purged by pregnant women | Believed to be a strong animal | |
Limbs and head1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Resistant | |
Fur1 | - Treats skin burns and dries fresh wounds: plaster on the burned part | Medicinal | |
- Treats cough: mix with oil palm, Ageratum cornisoides and the coat of palm kernel fruits and consume | Medicinal | ||
Western tree hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis | Skin2 | - Making of drums | Light and easily malleable |
Drill Mandrillus leucophaeus | Skull and limbs1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
Teeth3 | - Making necklaces | For prestige | |
Bones1,2 | - For drumming | Traditional inherited practice | |
- Treats fractures: tie around fractured hand or leg | Medicinal | ||
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Gives a good sound, resistant and thick | |
Flying squirrel Funisciurus sp.; | Fur1 (Figure 9) | Treats fire burns and dries fresh wounds: plaster on the burned part and wounds | Medicinal |
Tropical forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis | Dung1 | - Treats stomachache: consume | Medicinal |
- Treats sterility in women: consume | Medicinal | ||
Hoofs1 | - Treats elephantiasis: cut into seven parts, and burned then mixed with wood ash. The infected leg is cut using a razor blade and placed on the smoke produced by the fire in which the hoofs are being burned. This is done for seven days | Medicinal | |
Tusks1,3,4 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
- Making necklaces and jewelry | For chiefs and elders | ||
- Decoration | For prestige | ||
- Protection | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Bones1 | - Treats waist pains: grind, mix with the bone marrow and apply on cuts made on the waist with a razor blade | Medicinal | |
- Sold to Nigerians | For money | ||
Skin of the ear2 | - Making of drums | Solid, durable, resistant and elastic | |
Tail fur3 | - Decorate the cap of chiefs | For prestige | |
Meat4 | - Liberation ceremonies | Not revealed | |
Western gorilla Gorilla gorilla | Skull and limb bones1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
Right hand bones1,2 | - Fortify man: grind and mix with palm oil then apply on cuts made on the body with a razor blade | Believed to be a strong animal | |
- Fortify babies and children: grind and mix with seeds of Aframomum melegueta and used for purging pregnant women | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
- For drumming | Traditional inherited practice | ||
- Fortify children: massage of children | Believed that the gorilla is a strong animal | ||
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Produces quality sound | |
Meat1 | - Fortify foetus: consume by pregnant women | Believed to be a strong animal | |
Putty nosed Guenon Cercopithecus nictitans | Skin2 | - Making of drums | Resistant, produces quality sound and it is elastic |
Leopard Panthera pardus | Teeth3,4 | - Decoration | Traditional inherited practice |
- Protection: wear as necklaces by chiefs | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Limbs1 | - Fortify foetus: grind and mix with cold water and ground roasted plantains. The resulting concoction is purged by pregnant women | Believed to be a strong animal | |
Skin3 | - Decoration of homes of Ekpe members | Signifies prestige and denotes hierarchy between members of Ekpe society | |
- Dressing | Hierarchy | ||
- Making drums played only by Ekpe members | Shows strength of the society and produces quality sound | ||
- Sold to Nigerians and village chiefs | For money | ||
- As carpet and for decorating the chair of the chief of Ekpe society | Traditional inherited practice | ||
Marsh mongoose Atilax paludinosus | Teeth1 | - Treats snake bites: used as a blade to wound the bitten part before applying the remedy | Medicinal tool |
Mona guenon Cercopithecus mona | Skull1 | - Treats whooping cough: burn, grind and mix with oil palm and consume by children | Medicinal |
Bones4 | - For charming: mix small pieces with roots of Mimosa invisa and put into the pocket. Then call the name of the desired person several times | Traditional inherited practice | |
African palm civet Nandinia binotata | Skin2 | - Making of drums | Produces quality sound |
- Decoration: hang in the room of a dead member of the Ekpe society in substitution of the skin of a leopard (Figure 10) | Denotes hierarchy between members of Ekpe | ||
Tail4 | - Tie on the hands of women (those who have been proposed marriage) during the ‘monenkim’ traditional dance (dance of women) (Figure 11) | Traditional inherited practice | |
- As a scarecrow when drying cocoa | For scaring birds and domestic animals | ||
Fur1 | - Treating fire burns: burn, grind and mix with leaves of Aframomum melegueta and apply on the burned part | Medicinal | |
Head1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Pangolin Phataginus tricuspis/Uronamis tetradactyla | Scales4 | - Blade | It is sharp |
Skin2 | - Making of drums | Produces quality sound, not good for consumption | |
Meat4 | - Seduction: very appreciated by women when cooked | It is believed that the fat attracts women | |
Brushed-tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus | Spines3,4 | - Decorating the caps of members of Ekpe (Figure 12) | Heritage and denotes hierarchy between members of Ekpe society |
- Used as a fork | It is pointed | ||
Tail1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Meat1,4 | - Gives respect between members in the Ekpe society: prepare and share with other members | Traditional inherited practice | |
- Widely used in all ceremonies | Abundant | ||
Red-river hog Potamochoerus porcus | Teeth3 | - For making necklaces: it is traditionally called ‘masanga’ and is worn by chiefs (Figure 13) | Tradition and prestige |
Denotes hierarchy between members of Ekpe | |||
Skin1,2 | - Prevents miscarriage: boil and use the resulting concoction for purging pregnant women | Medicinal | |
- Making of drums | Solid | ||
Head1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Potto Perodicticus potto | Skull and hands1 | - Fortify children and men: scrape and purge | Believed to transmit its strength to children and men |
Skull and limbs1 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Right hand and limb bone1 | - Treats hernia: boil in water and mix with the bark of Okan Cylicodiscus gabonensis or burn, grind and mix with water and herbs locally called “Tsinabub” (Figure 14). The resulting concoction is purged by pregnant women and children | Medicinal | |
- Strengthen children: burn, grind, mix with herbs locally called “Ntemaker” (Figure 15), “Njichondick or blood leaves” or “Osseleayong leaves” (Figure 16) and purge | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
- Strengthen man: burn, grind, cook with Aframomum melegueta and apply on cuts made on the body using a razor blade | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
- Promotes breast milk abundance and fortifies kids: cook and consume by women who have just given birth | Medicinal | ||
Skin2,3 | - Decoration | Shows the importance of the holder | |
- Making of drums | Solid and produces desired sounds | ||
Fur1 | - Treat burns: plaster on the skin | The wound dries rapidly | |
Monkeys Cercopithecus spp.; | Skull2 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money |
Limbs, head and young monkeys2 | - Sold to Nigerians | For money | |
Jaws1 | - Treats toothache and intestinal worms: burn, grind and mix with Aframomum melegueta then consume | Medicinal | |
Bones1,2 | - Musical instrument: used by members of the Obhon society | The bone is big | |
- Sold to Nigerians | For money | ||
- Renders men strong: grind and mix with water then purge | Believed to be a strong animal | ||
Skin2,4 | - Making of drums | Durable, produces quality sound, light, resistant and elastic | |
- Making of baby carriers | Resistant | ||
Meat4 | - Cook during death, marriage and traditional ceremonies | Traditional inherited practice |