Table 5 Matrix cognition compared between the fishers´ LEK and the scientific literature on the biology and ecology of European pilchard in Peniche, Portugal

Habitat

“Coastal species and prefers sites near river mouths in the sea”.

“Depths between 0 to 100 m”.

Coastal shelf waters [39,40,41,42,43];

Areas of great productivity near the mouths of rivers and estuaries [42]; Area of local upwelling or river runoff [44].

Depths of up to 100 m, reaching a lower depth limit of 180 m [40]; Preference for waters with depths of up to 100 m [43].

Behaviour

“Migration carried out in shoals”.

“Ability to school as a way to ward off

predators”.

Migratory behaviour, a high dispersal capacity and schooling

behaviour similar to other pelagic fish [45].

Competitors or predators may change the direction or influence the

intensity of these migrations in schooling [46].

Migration

“Mainly Figueira da Foz and Algarve”.

“Póvoa de Varzim, Lisbon...”.

Póvoa de Varzim, Figueira da Foz and Lisbon [49];

Algarve (Southern Portion of Portugal), this pelagic fish is found in greater quantities [49].

Development

“Rapid growth”.

“Sardine reach sexual maturity at 1 year”; “from 3 to 7 months of age”.

Very fast growth rate [42, 45, 50].

Matures early [52, 53].

Spawning

“The main months of spawning are also December, January and February”.

“Spawn time can range from one to 8 months”.

“In the winter, the sardine spawns more”;

“The spawning occurs 2 to 4 times a year”.

October to April [56]; mainly between December and February along the Portuguese coast [57].

Ranging from 3 months per year up to 8 months [43].

Sardines exhibit a prolonged spawning period during the year, with more pronounced spawning mainly in the colder months of the year [43].

Fat accumulation season

“June through October”.

Late summer and autumn [58].

Late spring to autumn [42].

Predator

“Mainly dolphins (atuninha or toninha), “sharks, whales, conger eel (safio) and yellowfin tuna (albacora)”; “yellow-legged gull (gaivota)”, albatross and other birds”.

Common dolphin (D. delphis) [59,60,61,62]; species of demersal fish, seabirds and marine mammals [41, 42, 59, 63, 64].

Prey

“Plankton, algae called “limo”, small shrimp, krill, the spawn of other fish species and their own spawn”.

Zooplankton as their energy source [58, 68]; Phytoplankton [58, 69]; fish eggs and crustaceans [58].

Sardines may predate on their own eggs in winter [69].