Table 2 Comprehensive inventory of the plants listed by women in Mecca including the scientific name and family, whether the plant is found in the Flora of Saudi Arabia and whether it is used as a food or spice, vernacular name(s), part(s) used, therapeutic use categories, preparation, administration, toxicity and side effects, frequency of citation and Smith’s S. For presence or absence in the Flora of Saudi Arabia, Y = yes, N = no, and for food and/or spice use, F = food and S = spice. Plants not documented in the selected literature are marked with ‘*’
From: Medicinal plants used by women in Mecca: urban, Muslim and gendered knowledge
Scientific name (family, voucher) | Flora of Saudi Arabia | Food (F) or spice (S) | Vernacular name(s) (Arabic) | Part(s) used | Therapeutic use categories | Preparation | Administration | Toxicological remarks and reported side effects | Frequency of citation | Smith’s S |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile. (Fabaceae, EWM_62) | N | – | Qard (ضرق) | Fruit, root | Neurological, digestive | Infusion, decoction | Wash, bath | N | 2 | 0.041 |
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. (Fabaceae, EWM_77) | N | – | Samg arabi (يبرع غمص) | Resin | Urological, endocrine and nutritional | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 2 | 0.042 |
Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult. (Amaranthaceae, EWM_90) | Y | – | Tarf (فرط) | All plant | Neurological, digestive | Infusion, ground | Oral ingestion (drink), put directly on the teeth | N | 1 | 0.009 |
* Alchemilla sp. (Rosaceae, EWM_68) | Y | – | Rajel alasad (دسلآا لجر) | Root | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 1 | 0.01 |
*Alchemilla xanthochlora Rothm. (Rosaceae, EWM_01) | N | – | Abat alseda (ةأبع ةديسلا) | Leaf | Gynaecological | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.021 |
Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae, EWM_14) | N | F | Bsal (لصب) | Bulb, tunic | General and unspecified, gynaecological | Juice with lemon, added to food | Oral ingestion (drink or eat), fumigation, placing onions on the bottom of the feet and wear socks | N | 4 | 0.034 |
Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae, NA) | N | F | Thoom (موث) | Bulb | General and unspecified, cardiovascular, digestive, ear | Put with food, in water, mash, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), put directly on the teeth | N | 7 | 0.069 |
Aloe sp. (Xanthorrhoeaceae, EWM_74) | Y | – | Sabr (ربص) | Leaf flesh | Digestive, gynaecological, skin | Put in water | Oral ingestion (drink), topic on wounds | Causes diarrhoea | 1 | 0.007 |
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Xanthorrhoeaceae, EWM_73) | N | – | Sabbar (رابص) | Leaf flesh | Skin | No preparation | Topic on wounds or hair | Overdose may cause colon cancer | 2 | 0.041 |
*Alpinia officinarum Hance (Zingiberaceae, EWM_43) | N | S | Kholanjan (ناجنلوخ) | Rhizome | Digestive, cardiovascular, skin | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.013 |
*Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. (Apiaceae, EWM_44) | Y | S | Khull (ةلخ) | Seed, leaf, fruit | Cardiovascular, urological | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause dryness and hypotension, not to be used by pregnant women | 4 | 0.053 |
Anastatica hierochuntica L. (Brassicaceae, EWM_34) | Y | – | Kaff maryam (فك ميرم) | Fruit | Family planning, gynaecological | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink), topic | Can cause stomach disorders and nausea | 4 | 0.04 |
Anethum graveolens L. (Apiaceae, EWM_81) | Y | S | Shabath (ثبش) | Leaf | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by those who suffer from kidney disease | 1 | 0.004 |
*Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae, EWM_46) | Y | F | Korfos (سفرك) | Leaf | Gynaecological, digestive, neurological | Infusion, juice, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 2 | 0.02 |
*Artemisia judaica L. (Asteraceae, EWM_87) | Y | – | Shayh (حيش) | All plant | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 1 | 0.007 |
*Avena sativa L. (Poaceae, EWM_88) | Y | F | Shuran (نافوش) | Seed | Endocrine and nutritional | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.002 |
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae, EWM_60) | N | – | Nim (مين) | Leaf | Digestive, general and unspecified | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink), bath | N | 2 | 0.035 |
*Beta vulgaris L. (Amaranthaceae, EWM_09) | Y | F | Banjr (رجنب) | Fruit | Blood and immune mechanisms | Decoction, juice, no preparation | Oral ingestion (drink ore at) | N | 7 | 0.054 |
Boswellia sacra Flueck. (Burseraceae, EWM_50) | N | – | Laban aldakar, laban shahari (نابل ،ركذلا يرحش نابل) | Resin | General and unspecified, respiratory, neurological | Infusion, chewing, fumigation | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 8 | 0.113 |
*Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae, NA) | N | F | Kronb (بنرك) | Leaf | Digestive | Juice (with apples and milk), in food, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink or eat) | N | 7 | 0.018 |
Brassica rapa L. (Brassicaceae, EWM_40) | N | F | Khardal (لدرخ) | Seed | Musculoskeletal, cardiovascular | Ground, infusion | In hot water (to put feet in) | N | 2 | 0.028 |
Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. fil., (Apocynaceae, NA) | Y | – | Eshr (راشع) | Flower | Respiratory | In water, ground | Oral ingestion (drink or eat) | Can cause diarrhoea | 1 | 0.005 |
*Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae, EWM_85) | N | F | Shay, shay akhdar (ياش, رضخأ ياش) | Leaf | Digestive, metabolic and nutritional, gynaecological, general and unspecified, family planning | Decoction, infusion | Topic, oral ingestion (drink), fumigation | When ingested, overdose may cause diarrhoea | 7 | 0.09 |
Carthamus tinctorius L. (Asteraceae, EWM_61) | Y | – | Osforr (رفصع) | Flower | Endocrine and nutritional, cardiovascular | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause diarrhoea | 1 | 0.03 |
*Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae, EWM_37) | N | S | Karawia (ةيوارك) | Seed | Digestive, gynaecological, general and unspecified, respiratory, family planning | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may affect the kidneys | 6 | 0.111 |
Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae, EWM_41) | N | F | Kharnub (بونرخ) | Fruit | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.025 |
*Cinnamomum verum J. S. Presl (Lauraceae, EWM_67) | N | S | Qurfa (هفرق) | Bark | Gynaecological, digestive, blood and immune system, endocrine and nutritional, respiratory, family planning | Decoction, ground | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause fainting, hypotension, dizziness and sweating, bleeding if used for more than 3 days, not to be used with ginger, not to be used by pregnant women (may cause abortion) | 20 | 0.349 |
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae, EWM_28) | Y | – | Hanzal (لظنح) | Leaf, fruit | Digestive, skin | Infusion, no preparation | Oral ingestion (drink), topic | N | 2 | 0.041 |
*Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae, EWM_51) | N | F | Portokal (لاقترب) | Fruit | Digestive, general and unspecified | Juice, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | N | 2 | 0.04 |
Citrus sp. (Rutaceae, EWM_51) | N | F | Limon (نوميل) | Fruit | General and unspecified, digestive, endocrine and nutritional, respiratory | Juice, dry until black and ground in water, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink), topic | N | 10 | 0.201 |
Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae, EWM_64) | N | F | Qashr album (رشق نبللا) | Pericarp | Blood and immune system, gynaecological, endocrine and nutritional | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 6 | 0.117 |
Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Christ. (Burseraceae, EWM_12 | Y | – | Basham (ماشب) | Root | Gynaecological, general and unspecified, respiratory, neurological | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink), topic | N | 3 | 0.051 |
Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (Burseraceae, EWM_53) | Y | – | Marr (رم) | Resin | Skin, digestive, respiratory, gynaecological, general and unspecified | In water, infusion | Poultice, mouthwash, oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may upset the stomach and cause general discomfort | 17 | 0.323 |
Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae, EWM_47) | Y | F | Kozbra (ةربزك) | Leaf | Digestive, cardiovascular, neurological | Ground, infusion, with food | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause infertility | 5 | 0.079 |
*Costus sp. (Costaceae, EWM_63) | N | – | Qasd hindi (يدنه دصق) | Root | Endocrine and nutritional, general and unspecified, gynaecological, blood and immune system, urological, family planning | Ground, decoction | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | N | 4 | 0.05 |
*Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae, EWM_99) | N | S | Zafran (نارفعز) | Stigma | General and unspecified, digestive, respiratory | With food, in water | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 3 | 0.025 |
Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae, NA) | N | F | Khiar (رايخ) | Fruit | Urological, digestive, neurological | No preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 2 | 0.033 |
Cuminum cyminum L. (Apiaceae, EWM_36) | Y | S | Kamun (نومك) | Seed | Digestive, gynaecological, endocrine and nutritional, general and unspecified, respiratory | Infusion, decoction, ground | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may upset the stomach and produce constipation) | 22 | 0.486 |
Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae, EWM_38) | N | S | Karrakum (مكرك) | Rhizome | Musculoskeletal, skin, blood and immune system, general and unspecified, digestive, respiratory, endocrine and nutritional | Ground, infusion, with honey | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), poultice | Overdose may upset the stomach | 8 | 0.09 |
*Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae, NA) | N | F | Safarjil (لجرفس) | Fruit | Digestive | No preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.02 |
*Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. (Poaceae, EWM_02) | Y | – | Adhkhur (رخذا) | Leaf | Neurological, digestive, urological, general and unspecified | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink), decoction (steam inhalation) | N | 3 | 0.069 |
*Dialium sp. (Fabaceae, EWM_26) | N | – | Hamayd (ضيمح) | Fruit | Digestive, urological | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.008 |
*Dipterygium glaucum Decne. (Cleomaceae, EWM_06) | Y | – | Arfaj (جفرع) | Leaf | Digestive, respiratory | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink), decoction (steam inhalation) | N | 1 | 0.003 |
*Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. (Asparagaceae, EWM_16) | N | – | Dam alakhwan (مد نيوخلأا) | Resin | General and unspecified, digestive | Ground | Poultice | N | 1 | 0.006 |
*Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (Zingiberaceae, EWM_24) | N | S | Hal (لاه) | Fruit, seed | Respiratory | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.004 |
Eruca sp. (Brassicaceae, EWM_33) | Y | – | Jarjir (ريجرج) | Leaf | Blood and immune system, respiratory | With food, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | N | 9 | 0.133 |
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (Myrtaceae, EWM_35) | N | – | Kafor (روفاك) | Leaf | Neurological, digestive, general and unspecified | Infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 3 | 0.035 |
Ferula assa-foetida L. (Apiaceae, EWM_25) | N | – | Halatayta (ةتيتلح) | Resin | Digestive, respiratory | Maceration | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by breastfeeding women, children should not take more than 5 ml | 4 | 0.068 |
Ficus palmata Forssk. (Moraceae, NA) | Y | F | Hamat (طامح) | Fruit | Digestive | No preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.007 |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae, EWM_83) | Y | S | Shamr (رمش) | Seed | Digestive, urological, gynaecological, general and unspecified, neurological, blood and immune system | Infusion, decoction, ground | Oral ingestion (drink or eat) | Overdose may cause inflammation of the intestines | 14 | 0.248 |
*Fucus vesiculosus L. (Fucaceae, EWM_21) | N | – | Foqus (سقوف) | Leaf | Endocrine and nutritional, cardiovascular | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.004 |
*Glebionis coronaria (L.) N.N. Tzvel. (Asteraceae, EWM_04) | N | – | Aqhwan (ناوحقا) | Leaf, flower | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not recommended for babies | 1 | 0.004 |
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae, EWM_18) | Y | – | Eirqsos (سوسقرع) | Root | Digestive, musculoskeletal | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.023 |
*Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae, EWM_49) | N | – | Kwajara karakadi (،يتارجوك ةيدكرك) | Calyx, sepal | Cardiovascular, blood and immune system, digestive, urological, neurological | Infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 15 | 0.209 |
*Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae, EWM_82) | Y | F | Shaeir (ريعش) | Seeds | Urological, digestive | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 5 | 0.041 |
*Hyphaene sp. (Arecaceae, EWM_17) | Y | – | Dom (مود) | Fruit | Cardiovascular | Ground, infusion with honey | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.026 |
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. (Cupressaceae, EWM_05) | Y | – | Arar (رعرع) | Fruit | Urological | Infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 1 | 0.006 |
*Lactuca sativa L. (Asteraceae, NA) | N | F | Khas (سخ) | Leaf | Blood and immune system, urological, digestive | With food | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 2 | 0.02 |
*Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae, EWM_93) | N | S | Waraq alghar (قرو راغلا) | Leaf | Urological, general and unspecified | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.007 |
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae, EWM_27) | Y | – | Hana (انح) | Leaf | Neurological, musculoskeletal, skin | Ground, with honey in water | Topic, poultice | N | 3 | 0.03 |
Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicacea, EWM_70) | Y | S | Rashad, thafa (،داشر ءافث) | Seed | Gynaecological, musculoskeletal, skin, digestive, endocrine and nutritional, neurological, general and unspecified, cardiovascular | Ground, infusion, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), poultice | Not to be used for over a month, nor by pregnant women, overdose may cause diarrhoea and upset stomach | 13 | 0.228 |
Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae, EWM_13) | Y | – | Bidharrat alkitan (ةرذب ناتكلا) | Seed | Digestive, endocrine and nutritional, general and unspecified, gynaecological | Ground, infusion | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Can cause stomach and abdominal pain, and gases | 4 | 0.079 |
*Lupinus albus L. (Fabaceae, EWM_91) | N | F | Tarmas (سمرت) | Seed | Neurological, endocrine and nutritional, blood and immune system | With food, infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause phlegm and skin yellowing | 4 | 0.035 |
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae, NA) | N | F | Tamatum (مطامط) | Fruit | Blood and immune system | No preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | Overdose may cause diarrhoea | 1 | 0.023 |
Malva parviflora L. (Malvaceae, EWM_39) | Y | – | Khabiza (ةزيبخ) | Leaf, flower | Family planning, general and unspecified, respiratory | Infusion, no preparation | Chewing, oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.002 |
Matricaria aurea (L.) Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae, EWM_07) | Y | – | Babunj (جنوباب) | Flower | General and unspecified, neurological, cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory | Infusion | Inhale, oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause dizziness or headache | 9 | 0.134 |
*Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae, EWM_52) | N | – | Malisaa (اسيلم) | Leaf | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women or children | 1 | 0.019 |
Mentha sp. (Lamiaceae, EWM_59) | Y | – | Nena (عانعن) | Leaf | Digestive, cardiovascular, general and unspecified, neurological, respiratory, gynaecological | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 16 | 0.289 |
Morus nigra L. (Moraceae, EWM_95) | N | F | Waraq tawt (توت قرو) | Leaf | Family planning | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.013 |
*Musa acuminata Colla (Musaceae, NA) | N | F | Moz (زوم) | Fruit | Digestive | No preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.029 |
Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae, EWM_92) | Y | – | Waraq alas (سلاا قرو) | Leaf | General and unspecified, respiratory, blood and immune system, cardiovascular | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 2 | 0.022 |
Nigella sativa L. (Ranunculaceae, EWM_22) | N | S | Haba sawda (ةبح ءادوس) | Seed | Blood and immune system, general and unspecified, respiratory, gynaecological, musculoskeletal, neurological | Ground, 7 seeds with honey or dates, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women, children, or babies, if more than 7 seeds are taken in a day, it can cause abortion, overdose may affect the kidneys | 13 | 0.201 |
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae, EWM_71) | N | – | Rihan (ناحير) | Leaf, flower | General and unspecified, respiratory | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.006 |
Ocimum sp. (Lamiaceae, EWM_23) | Y | – | Habaq (قبح) | Leaf | General and unspecified, digestive | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women or children | 3 | 0.04 |
Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae, EWM_101) | Y | F | Zeetoun (نوتيز) | Oil, leaf | General and unspecified, endocrine and nutritional, respiratory | Syrup, liniment, infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), liniment | If boiled (leaves) may become toxic, overdose may cause diarrhoea | 5 | 0.086 |
*Origanum majorana L. (Lamiaceae, EWM_11) | N | – | Bardaqush (شوقدرب) | Leaf | Endocrine and nutritional, urological, digestive, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular | Infusion, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 5 | 0.078 |
*Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br. (Poaceae, EWM_15) | Y | F | Dakhun (نخد) | Seed | Digestive | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.015 |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (Apiaceae, EWM_10) | N | F | Baqdunas (سنودقب) | Leaf | Cardiovascular, urological, female, gynaecological, blood and immune system, musculoskeletal, skin | Infusion, ground, decoction, juice, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), wash | Overuse may cause skin irritation | 10 | 0.163 |
Phoenix dactylifera L. (Arecaceae, NA) | Y | F | Nakhel, tamr (،ليخن رمت) | Fruit, seed | Family planning, digestive | Ground, in hot milk or honey | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.012 |
Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae, EWM_96) | N | S | Yansun (نوسناي) | Seed | Digestive, gynaecological, respiratory, general and unspecified, urological, neurological | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause abdominal distension | 21 | 0.559 |
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae, EWM_20) | N | S | Flfl aswad, flfl abyad (،دوسا لفلف, ضيبا لفلف) | Fruit | Respiratory, gynaecological, digestive, urological | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause heartburn | 6 | 0.084 |
Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae, EWM_57) | N | – | Mustaka (اكتسم) | Resin | General and unspecified, musculoskeletal | In small pieces on a gauze with lemon | Poultice | N | 1 | 0.008 |
*Prunus mahaleb L. (Rosaceae, EWM_55) | N | F | Mhallab (بلحم) | Seed | Digestive, general and unspecified | Ground, infusion | Rubbed on gums, topic, oral ingestion (drink), poultice | N | 4 | 0.069 |
*Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae, EWM_94) | N | F | Waraq jawwafa (قرو ةفاوج) | Leaf | General and unspecified, respiratory, neurological | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 7 | 0.106 |
Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae, EWM_72) | N | F | Roman (نامر) | Peel | Digestive, skin, gynaecological | Ground, decoction | Oral ingestion (eat), poultice, topic | N | 7 | 0.103 |
Rhazya stricta Decne. (Apocynaceae, EWM_30) | Y | – | Harmal (لمرح) | Leaf, root | General and unspecified, digestive | Decoction, ground, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Can cause dizziness and sleeping problems, overdose can be toxic | 4 | 0.08 |
*Rheum sp. (Polygonaceae, EWM_69) | Y | – | Raoud (دنوار) | Leaf, root | Digestive | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant or breastfeeding women, or people with kidney problems | 1 | 0.017 |
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae, EWM_45) | Y | – | Khurue (عورخ) | Seeds, oil | Digestive, musculoskeletal, skin | Liniment, in juice | Oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant women | 2 | 0.033 |
*Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae, EWM_03) | N | – | Aklel aljabal (ليلكا لبجلا) | Leaf | Respiratory, general and unspecified, digestive, neurological, cardiovascular | Ground, infusion | Oral ingestion (eat or drink), decoction (steam inhalation) | Not to be used by pregnant women or patients with blood pressure problems | 6 | 0.1 |
Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae, EWM_84) | Y | – | Shathab (باذش) | Leaf | Neurological, ear, respiratory | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause sleepiness, cirrhosis, abortion | 1 | 0.024 |
*Salix mucronata Thunb. (Salicaceae, EWM_76) | Y | – | Safsaf (فاصفص) | Leaf | Musculoskeletal | Infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | N | 1 | 0.003 |
*Salvia officinalis L. (lamiaceae, EWM_56) | N | – | Miramia (ةيماريم) | Leaf | General and unspecified, digestive, gynaecological, neurological | Decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink), mouthwash | Not to be used during menstruation, increases production of milk | 5 | 0.106 |
Senna alexandrina Mill. (Fabaceae, EWM_78) | Y | – | Sana maki (يكم انس) | Leaf | Digestive, gynaecological | Decoction | Oral ingestion (drink) | Dry, not to be used by pregnant and breastfeeding women | 8 | 0.195 |
Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae, EWM_89) | Y | F | Smsm (مسمس) | Seed | Neurological, endocrine and nutritional | In food, ground, no preparation | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 2 | 0.039 |
*Solenostemma argel (Delile) Hayne (Apocynaceae, EWM_29) | N | – | Hargal (لجرح) | Leaf | Musculoskeletal, digestive, blood and immune system, endocrine and nutritional | Ground, in water | Topic, oral ingestion (drink) | Not to be used by pregnant or breastfeeding women | 2 | 0.042 |
*Spinacia oleracea L. (Amaranthaceae, EWM_80) | N | F | Sbanekh (خنابس) | Leaf | Blood and immune system, digestive, general and unspecified | With food | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 4 | 0.052 |
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry (Myrtaceae, EWM_66) | N | S | Qrnfol (لفنورق) | Flower bud | Digestive, general and unspecified, endocrine and nutritional, neurological, blood and immune system | Ground, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink), put directly on teeth | Overdose may upset the stomach, not to be used by people with liver problems | 14 | 0.22 |
Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae, NA) | Y | F | Tamrr hindi, homar (رمت رمح ،يدنه) | Fruit | General and unspecified, digestive, skin | In water, decoction | Oral ingestion (drink), poultice | N | 2 | 0.034 |
Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae, EWM_98) | N | – | Zaetir (رتعز) | Leaf | General and unspecified, respiratory, digestive, gynaecological, cardiovascular, neurological | In water or tea, decoction, infusion, in food | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause digestion | 7 | 0.114 |
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague (Apiaceae, EWM_58) | Y | S | Nankha (ةخنان) | Seed | Digestive, musculoskeletal, gynaecological | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Overdose may cause constipation | 7 | 0.062 |
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fabaceae, EWM_31) | Y | S | Helba (ةبلح) | Seed | Family planning, digestive, gynaecological, musculoskeletal, blood and immune system, endocrine and nutritional, urological, respiratory, general and unspecified | Ground in milk, decoction, infusion | Oral ingestion (drink) | Use is not recommended for children under 2, overdose may cause nausea or overweight | 24 | 0.56 |
*Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae, EWM_32) | N | F | Janen alqmah (نينج حمقلا) | Seed | Neurological, cardiovascular | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat) | Overdose may cause overweight | 1 | 0.022 |
*Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek (Fabaceae, EWM_54) | N | F | Mash (شام) | Seed | Neurological, general and unspecified, blood and immune system, musculoskeletal, endocrine and nutritional | With food, ground, decoction | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | Can cause overweight | 8 | 0.1 |
*Viola sp. (Violaceae, EWM_08) | Y | – | Banafsj (جسفنب) | Leaf, flower | Respiratory | No preparation | Sublingual, chewing | N | 1 | 0.031 |
Vitis sp. (Vitaceae, EWM_97) | N | F | Zabib (بيبز) | Fruit | Blood and immune system, neurological, endocrine and nutritional | In food, with juice | Oral ingestion (eat or drink) | N | 5 | 0.086 |
Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae, EWM_100) | N | S | Zanajabil (ليبجنز) | Root | General and unspecified, musculoskeletal, digestive, endocrine and nutritional, cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, blood and immune system | Decoction, infusion, ground | Oral ingestion (drink) | Overdose may cause heartburn or skin reactions | 18 | 0.294 |
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (Rhamnaceae, EWM_75) | Y | – | Sader (ردس) | Leaf | Skin | Infusion, ground | Wash | N | 2 | 0.015 |
Not identified (Cupressaceae, EWM_65) | – | – | Qatiran (نارطق) | Oil | Skin | Liniment | Topic | N | 1 | 0.005 |
Not identified (EWM_79) | – | – | Saq alhamam, khawa jawa (قاس ،مامحلا اوجاوخ) | Root | Skin | Ground | Poultice | N | 2 | 0.049 |
Not identified (EWM_48) | – | – | Krela (لايرك) | Fruit | Endocrine and nutritional | Ground | Oral ingestion (eat) | N | 1 | 0.031 |