Table 3 Microevolutionary processes in cultural evolution (adapted from [9])

 Cultural mutation

Randomly generated innovations, similar to genetic mutations

 Guided variation

Individuals modify acquired information according to individual cognitive biases (Lamarckian)

 Demic diffusion

Cultural traits spread as their bearers move between different groups

 Cultural diffusion

Cultural traits spread across group boundaries due to cultural transmission

 Content bias

Preferentially adopting traits based on their intrinsic attractiveness (i.e., those that present strong emotional reactions)

 Model-based bias

Preferentially adopting traits based on the characteristics of the model (person) (i.e., his/her prestige, age, or similarity)

 Conformity bias

Preferentially adopting a trait based on its frequency (i.e., its popularity)

 • Vertical

Transmission from the biological parents (uniparental or biparental)

 • Oblique

Transmission from unrelated members of the parental generation

 • Horizontal

Transmission from unrelated members of the same generation

 • One-to-one

Face-to-face learning from one individual to another

 • One-to-many

One individual influences many individuals through mass education or mass media

 • Many-to-one^a

One individual is chosen to be taught by many experienced individuals

 • Blending

Adoption of the “average” of a continuous trait from more than one model

 • Particulate

All-or-nothing transmission of discrete cultural traits