Local knowledge and exploitation of the avian fauna by a rural community in the semi-arid zone of northeastern Brazil

Human beings have always exploited wild animals for a variety of resources, and their relationship with these animals can be observed in the hunting scenes found in ancient rock paintings in South America [1, 2]. In recent years, a scientific discipline, known as Ethnozoology, has been developed to provide a systematic understanding of the different types of interaction between humans and animals [3].

A number of different subsistence traditions can be found in the human populations of the Brazilian semi-arid zone, including hunting-and-gathering strategies. These strategies are supported by empirical knowledge on the most efficient practices for the acquisition and use of natural resources accumulated over many generations [4].

Worldwide, birds represent one of the most important groups of vertebrates that are hunted for food, and have attracted the attention of humans in a number of different ways over recorded history [2]. Birds present a number of characteristics, such as complex vocalizations and vividly-colored plumage, which not only makes them attractive to humans, but also permits the reliable identification of species in the wild [5, 6]. The various interactions between humans and birds, and local knowledge of this fauna are of considerable relevance for the conservation of the avian fauna of a given area, and ethno-ornithology is a fundamentally important tool for the gathering of such information [4, 7, 8].

Studies of the exploitation of wild animals – including birds – by human populations have been conducted in many regions of the world [3, 4, 9–12], providing information on the diversity of the fauna used and the patterns of exploitation of these animals by traditional rural communities. In addition to subsistence hunting [13, 14] and the raised in captivity of birds for pets and illegal trade, a number of studies have reported the medicinal use of some species [9–12].

In Brazil, the exploitation of the native fauna is intensified in areas such as the semi-arid Northeast, which has a population of some 28 million inhabitants, many of whom depend on locally-available natural resources, given the adverse environmental conditions found throughout most of the region [4]. In the specific case of the birds, interactions with human populations include subsistence hunting, pets, and illegal trade [8, 15–17], in addition to the occasional use of some species for medicinal purposes [4, 18–25].

In the Brazilian Northeast, 108,041 wild birds were confiscated from illegal traders by government agencies between 1992 and 2000 [26], far more than in any other part of the country. Birds represent the primary focus of the illegal trade in wild animals in Brazil, representing 82% of the 36,370 animals confiscated in the country in 1999 and 2000. These values reflect the clear impacts on the country’s natural ecosystems. Most of the species captured for the illegal trade are songbirds, in particular emberezids, or have exuberant plumage, such as psittacids, thraupids, and cardinalids [8, 16].

The Araripe National Forest has a diverse avian fauna. Nascimento et al. [27] produced an updated inventory of 193 bird species for the area. Many of the species known to occur in the area present potentially attractive characteristics, such as the seedeater birds (Sporophila spp., Sicalis spp. and Cyanoloxia brissonii), which are songbirds, and in the latter two cases, have exuberant plumage, which is also a characteristic of species such as the tanagers, parakeets and parrots. Some of the region’s bird species are endemic and/or endangered with extinction [28], including those targeted by subsistence hunters, such as the guans and tinamous (Penelope spp. Tinamidae), and illegal traders, in particular the Yellow-faced Siskin (Sporonga yarrellii), but above all, the Araripe Manakin (Antilophia bokermanni), a species that is endemic to the Araripe NF, and is classified as critically endangered [29] due primarily to the loss of habitats.

Given these considerations, the present study focused on the bird fauna of a region in the Brazilian semi-arid zone, with the primary aim of identifying the principal factors that determine the selection of the species exploited by the local residents. The study tests the hypothesis that colorful plumage and attractive birdsong are the principal attributes appreciated by the local informants, and that the species with these attributes and a good hunting potential are the most important to the local community. The study focused on the avian fauna of the Chapada do Araripe, and the principal characteristics used by local hunters as criteria for the selection of birds hunted for game or captured for other uses.

The song was the characteristic most mentioned by the interviewees, being cited by all the informants, followed by colorful plumage, mentioned by 14 informants. Almost all the informants referred to the potential of the birds as game. It was possible to confirm that the interviewees generally based their selection of bird species on characteristics judged to be attractive. Regarding the use of meat for consumption, the species that had the VU > 0.30, 16 (62,5%) have hunting potential. However, 64 (95,3%) species with hunting potential had the VU <0.30.

The most important game species belong to five families – the Tinamidae (Crypturellus parvirostris with 15 reports and C. tataupa with 16), Cracidae (Penelope superciliaris, n = 21 reports), Columbidae (Columbina picui, n = 8; Leptotila verreauxi, n = 11), Thamnophilidae (Sakesphorus cristatus, n = 7; Thamnophilus capistratus, n = 10), and the Tyrannidae (Myiodinastes maculatus, n = 12; Empidonomus varius, n = 9). Species of five families were also the most often cited for pets – Psittacidae (Eupsittula cactorum, n = 11), Corvidae (Cyanocorax cyanopogon, n = 5), Thraupidae (Paroaria dominicana, n = 8; Sicalis flaveola, n = 12) and Cardinalidae (Cyanoloxia brissonii, n = 4). A selection of the bird species used for game and captivity (some of which were observed in the residences of some of the interviewees) are shown in Figure 2.

Another relevant finding is that species such as the Blue-fronted Parrot (Amazona aestiva), a parrot popular as a pet, and the Roadside hawk (Rupornis magnirostris) were cited as game species. In fact, the informants who reported this practice confirmed that they would hunt as game any bird they encountered in the wild, “when we go out to hunt, we’ll kill any bird that crosses our path”.

Six of the 24 interviewees confirmed that they used five species of bird for medicinal purposes. One informant reported using the White-naped Jay (C. cyanopogon) (Figure 2G) as a cure for speech problems – “I used the bird to help my brother speak – he hadn’t spoken for three years”. Two specimens were captured and cooked without salt before being consumed by the patient, who “was speaking after just a few days”, according to the informant. Another informant reported that speech problems could be solved easily by removing the head of a live jay and drying it being hanging it from the child’s neck. Two informants referred to the use of an infusion of the feathers of the Yellow-legged Tinamou (Crypturellus noctivagus) as a cure for snakebite, in which case, they “burn the feathers, take the ash and put it in some drinking water”.

The Smooth-billed Ani (Crotophaga ani) (Figure 2I) is used for the treatment of “chronic cough”, for which the bird is also consumed after being cooked without salt. Another way of using this species for the treatment of asthma, according to a different informant, is to roast the animal until it has turned into “powder” and feed this substance to the patient without their knowledge.

Both species of tinamous (Crypturellus parvirostris and Crypturellus tataupa) were cited by one informant for the treatment of children with walking difficulties. The treatment consisted of cutting off the bird’s feet and drying them before hanging them around the neck of the child. This treatment was explained by the fact that the chicks of these species are able to run as soon as they hatch.

In a study of the illegal trade in wild birds in the semi-arid zone of the Brazilian state of Paraíba, Barbosa et al. [8] recorded a preference for the raised bird with the most attractive songs and coloration. This preference was also observed in the present study, where the majority of the informants interviewed at Macaúba confirmed that the plumage and song are the characteristics that most attract their attention in wild birds, supporting the hypothesis that the selection of species by the informants was motivated primarily by attributes considered by them to be attractive. The potential of the birds as game species is also taken into consideration, and the species with the highest UV scores, which have a high hunting potential, were the most frequently cited overall by the informants.

All the informants from Macaúba indicated that a bird’s song was the characteristic that most attracted their attention, followed by the color of the plumage, indicating that they appreciate these attributes. Despite this, hunting game to supplement the diet is the primary use of birds by the informants, a situation similar to that found in previous studies, such as those of Bezerra et al. [2], Mendonça et al. [4], Barbosa et al. [8] and Souza and Alves [17]. However, this is the opposite of the pattern found by Albuquerque et al. [35] and Alves et al. [36], who recorded raised birds in captivity as the primary use of the bird fauna in other areas of the Brazilian semi-arid zone, which may be related to the raised for food to complement the diet at the site of the present study. An additional characteristic of the present study was the captivity of songbirds and other species as personal pets rather than for commercial reasons or the illegal trade in wild animals.

One of the game species cited in the present study, with high use value, was Leptotila verreauxi. Similar bird (Leptotila rufaxilla) was also reported as a game species in Sierra Nanchititla, Mexico [9], indicating similarities in the preference for game species between countries.

The informants from Macaúba presented a marked preference for certain types of species for pets, in particular psittacids, corvids, thraupids. Others such as tinamids, columbids, and tyrannids were used for food. These findings are similar to those of Bezerra et al. [2], Mendonça et al. [4], Barbosa et al. [8], Pagano et al. [26] and Santos-Fita and Costa-Neto [37]. However, one family cited as use for food by many informants (Thamnophilidae) has not been recorded in previous ethno-ornithological studies, and the hunting of these species may be a local tradition.

Only three specialists reported using birds for medicinal purposes, possibly because these animals are rarely used for this purpose in general. However, this practice may represent a local tradition, handed down over the generations, as observed by Bezerra et al. [21]. The therapeutic use of one of the three species cited in the present study – C. cyanopogon – has also been recorded at a number of other Brazilian localities [14, 24, 38]. In Bahia state, Costa-Neto [39] recorded the medicinal use of all three species cited in the present study. In two of these cases, only the feathers were exploited – those of C. cyanopongon for neurological problems, and of C. noctivagus for cases of epilepsy. The smooth-billed anu (C. ani) is used in two ways – the bird is eaten whole as a treatment for morning sickness and its blood is taken as a cure for asthma (unspecified). Ferreira et al. [38] also recorded the use of C. ani feathers for the treatment of asthma in Crato, Ceará.

The results of the present study not only corroborate those of these previous studies, but provide evidence of variations in practices. Rather than using the feathers, for example, C. cyanopogon was cooked without salt and eaten whole for the treatment of a speech impediment, whereas C. ani was eaten whole as a cure for “chronic cough”. The feathers of C. noctivagus were used at Macaúba, but as a treatment for snakebite. This study represents the first published report of the zootherapeutic use of C. parvirostris and C. tataupa for the treatment of children with walking difficulties. Importantly, much of the use of birds as zooterapics is related to popular belief the region.

The results of the present study indicated that songbirds and other species with colorful plumage most attracted the attention of local residents, and are frequently captured for pets. However, game species are the primary objective of hunting activities.

The species targeted most frequently both for hutting and pets were the most attractive in terms of their plumage, song and/or meat. A number of the species identified in this study were recorded for these uses for the first time.

The evidence recorded for the medicinal use of birds in the Brazilian semi-arid zone is an important contribution to the study of zootherapy, which has important implications for conservation biology, public health policies, and the sustainable management of natural resources. Obviously, further studies are required in order to determine whether the treatments do in fact have any medicinal properties. If there is no scientific proof, the evidence should be used to discourage the exploitation of the species for this purpose.