Skip to main content

Advertisement

We’d like to understand how you use our websites in order to improve them. Register your interest.
Download PDF

Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: review and perspectives

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume 9, Article number: 31 (2013) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Traditional medicine has remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary healthcare system of resource poor communities in Zimbabwe. The local people have a long history of traditional plant usage for medicinal purposes. Despite the increasing acceptance of traditional medicine in Zimbabwe, this rich indigenous knowledge is not adequately documented. Documentation of plants used as traditional medicines is needed so that the knowledge can be preserved and the utilized plants conserved and used sustainably. The primary objective of this paper is to summarize information on traditional uses of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe, identifying research gaps and suggesting perspectives for future research.

Methods

This study is based on a review of the literature published in scientific journals, books, reports from national, regional and international organizations, theses, conference papers and other grey materials.

Results

A total of 93 medicinal plant species representing 41 families and 77 genera are used in south-central Zimbabwe. These plant species are used to treat 18 diseases and disorder categories, with the highest number of species used for gastro-intestinal disorders, followed by sexually transmitted infections, cold, cough and sore throat and gynaecological problems. Shrubs and trees (38% each) were the primary sources of medicinal plants, followed by herbs (21%) and climbers (3%). The therapeutic claims made on medicinal plants documented in south-central Zimbabwe are well supported by literature, with 82.8% of the plant species having similar applications in other regions of Zimbabwe as well as other parts of the world and 89.2% having documented biological and pharmacological properties.

Conclusion

This study illustrates the importance of traditional medicines in the treatment and management of human diseases and ailments in south-central Zimbabwe. Traditional medicines still play an important role in meeting basic health care of local communities in Zimbabwe.

Background

Out of more than 5000 plant species growing in Zimbabwe, about 10 percent of these have medicinal properties and are used as traditional medicines [1]. Traditional medicine has remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary healthcare system of resource poor communities in Zimbabwe. About 80% of the population in developing countries use traditional medicines because they cannot afford the high cost of western pharmaceuticals and health care, and because traditional medicines are more acceptable from a cultural and spiritual perspective [2]. Research by Hostettmann et al. [3] showed that the knowledge on the use of medicinal plants is enormous but if this traditional knowledge is not rapidly researched and recorded, indications are that it will be lost with succeeding generations. Despite the increasing acceptance of traditional medicine in Zimbabwe [1, 4, 5], this rich indigenous knowledge on traditional remedies is not adequately documented. Documentation of plants used as traditional medicines in Zimbabwe is urgent so that the knowledge can be preserved, the utilized plants are conserved and used sustainably. The current investigation therefore, attempts to fill some of the gaps in indigenous knowledge related to the use of herbal medicines in south-central Zimbabwe (Figure 1) emphasizing their role in basic human health care. The majority of the people in south-central Zimbabwe belong to the Karanga dialectical group. Most of the Karanga people live in Mberengwa, Shurugwi and Zvishavane districts in the Midlands province; and Chivi and Zaka districts in the Masvingo province [7], which are the study sites of the current study. The Karanga people possess their own traditional knowledge on medicinal plants that contributes to a broader understanding of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe. This investigation is part of a larger study [8] aimed at documenting the ethnobotanical knowledge held by the Karanga people in south-central Zimbabwe. Therefore, this review was done to document traditional uses of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe in order to provide comprehensive documentation, identify research gaps, and suggest perspectives for future research.

Figure 1
figure1

Geographical location of the study area, map modified from[6].

Full size image

Methods

The traditional uses of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe were collated. Available references or reports on the plant species were consulted from published scientific journals, books, reports from national, regional and international organizations, theses, conference papers and other grey materials. Literature was searched on international online databases such as ISI Web of Science, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scopus and Google Scholar using specific search terms such as “medicinal plants”, “traditional medicines”, “Chivi or Mberengwa or Shurugwi or Zaka or Zvishavane districts”, “Masvingo or Midlands provinces” and “Zimbabwe”. References were also identified by searching the library collections of the National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens, Harare, Zimbabwe and University of Limpopo, South Africa. Data collected from the literature included: use(s), mode of preparation and administration of the species. Literature search was also done to document the biological and pharmacological activities of the documented plant species.

Medicinal plant diversity

This study recorded ninety three plant species as useful in traditionally managing various human diseases in south-central Zimbabwe (Table 1). Of these, 79 species are indigenous to Zimbabwe (84.9%), while 14 species are exotic (15.1%), either naturalized as weeds or cultivated in home gardens as ornamentals or food plants. Dicotyledons were dominant with 87 plant species (93.5%), 5 monocotyledons (5.4%) and 1 fern (1.1%). These medicinal plants were distributed among 41 families and 77 genera. The majority of medicinal plants (71, 76.3%) used in south-central Zimbabwe are from 19 families (Table 2). Plant families with the highest number of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe were: Fabaceae sensu lato (11 species), followed by Anacardiaceae (9 species), Euphorbiaceae (7 species), Asteraceae, Ebenaceae and Tiliaceae (4 species each). Fabaceae, Anacardiaceae and Euphorbiaceae families have the highest number of species used as herbal medicines probably because these are large families characterized by several species. The rest of the families were represented by one species each (Table 1). The genera with highest number of species were Ficus, Grewia, Searsia and Strychnos with 3 species each.

Table 1 Medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe
Full size table
Table 2 Families with the largest number of medicinal plants (more than 2 species) in south-central Zimbabwe
Full size table

Growth habit and parts used

Trees and shrubs (38% each) are the primary sources of the medicinal plant species in south-central Zimbabwe, followed by herbs (21%) and climbers (3%) (Figure 2A). Extensive use of trees and shrubs in south-central Zimbabwe in preparation of herbal medicines might be linked to their availability throughout the year as they are relatively drought resistant and are not affected by seasonal variations [8]. The plant parts used for making herbal preparations were the bark, bulbs, fibre, fruits, leaves, rhizomes, roots, sap, seeds, twigs and whole plant. The roots were the most frequently used (61.3%), followed by leaves (32.3%), bark (12.9%), fruits (9.7%), sap (5.4%), bulbs, twigs and whole plant (2.2% each), fibre, seeds and rhizomes (1.1% each) (Figure 2B). The use of whole plant as remedy was administered for herbaceous plant species (Table 1). However, harvesting of roots of herbaceous plants for medicinal purposes is not sustainable as it threatens the survival of the same plants used to treat human ailments in south-central Zimbabwe. It is well recognized by conservationists that medicinal plants primarily valued for their root parts and those which are intensively harvested for their bark often tend to be the most threatened by over-exploitation [141].

Figure 2
figure2

Characteristics of the plants used as herbal medicines in south-central Zimbabwe. (A) Growth form habit represented in pie diagram and (B) plant parts used represented in bar chart.

Full size image

Ailments and diseases treated and herbal preparation

The majority of the plant species used (61.3%) had a single therapeutic use, with 19 species (20.4%) used in the treatment of two ailments, 6 species (6.5%) treating three ailments, 5 species (5.4%) treating four ailments, 3 species (3.2%) treating five ailments and Albizia antunesiana used to treat six ailments (Table 1). A total of 18 medical conditions were treated using remedies made from medicinal plants (Figure 3). Gastro-intestinal disorders, sexually transmitted infections, cold, cough and sore throat and gynaecological problems were treated with the highest number of medicinal plant species (Figure 3). Gastro-intestinal disorders, particularly cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery are a major concern not only in south-central Zimbabwe but the whole country and; in Mozambique as well, where dysentery and cholera usually result in high mortality rate if not treated promptly [142]. Sexually transmitted infections are a major public health concern in developing countries with their transmission rate regarded as one of the highest in the world [143]. Sexually transmitted infections are one of the most common reasons for people to use herbal medicines and visit traditional healers in Zimbabwe [1, 4, 8].

Figure 3
figure3

Major ailments and disease categories and plant species reported. Most species were reported in more than one ailment category.

Full size image

Plant remedies were often utilized in the form of extracts (76.3%), sap (11.8%) and powder (6.5%) (Table 1). Other preparation methods included paste, chewing the raw plant and inhaling smoke or vapour generated by burning some of the medicinal plant species. Most of the preparations (69.9%) were prescribed orally in warm water or soft porridge (Table 1). Herbal preparation methods and dosage depend on the type of disease. Some plants were boiled while others were applied directly in fresh form. Some herbal medicines were applied topically, either as bath, massage or lotion. For example, the use of burnt fruit peels of Entandrophragma caudatum which were mixed with vaseline and applied on genital areas affected with genital warts [9]. The herbal prescriptions were usually given to patients until patients reported positive results.

Monotherapy preparations made from a single plant species were the most dominant (92.5%); 4.3% and 3.2% of the herbal concoctions were prepared from a combination of two and three species respectively. Those that involved the use of two species included mixing roots of Annona stenophylla and Securidaca longipedunculata as snake repellent [8]. Roots of Elephantorrhiza goetzei and Piliostigma thonningii were used as remedy for bilharzia (schistosomiasis) [8]. Water extract of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves, Citrus limon fruits and Psidium guajava leaves was taken as a cure for cough, flu and fever [8]. The use of multiple therapies in traditional medicine based on combining plants has recently been shown to increase the efficacy of the herbal medicine [144]. According to Bussmann and Sharon [145], the use of more than one plant species to prepare a remedy for ailments is attributed to the additive or synergistic effects that they could have during ailment treatment.

Literature based proof of biological and pharmacological activities

Out of 93 medicinal plants used in south-central Zimbabwe, 83 species (89.2%) have proven biological and pharmacological activities (Table 1). The presence of these active ingredients in herbal medicines is directly linked to their ability to prevent or treat ailments. Analysis of the biological and pharmacological activity data (Table 1) shows the wide variety of biological activity of plants used as herbal medicines in south-central Zimbabwe; and the presence of these active ingredients in utilized plants as herbal medicines corroborates the popular traditional knowledge and medicinal uses of the documented plants. The identification of biologically active compounds in herbal medicines needs to be interpreted in the light of the traditional uses of the plants as well as herbal medicine preparation and dosage [146]. It is worth mentioning that most of these activities, mainly the antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic and analgesic properties; and the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins confirm the different popular applications of extracts obtained from traditional medicines.

The majority (82.8%) of the 93 plant species used as traditional medicines in south-central Zimbabwe have similar applications in other regions of Zimbabwe as well as other parts of the world (Table 1). The medicinal uses of 49 species (52.7%) are supported by reports of similar uses elsewhere in Zimbabwe and 40 species (43%) have similar uses in the other parts of the world (Table 1). Such similarities in the cross-cultural usage of the traditional plant remedies are a strong indication of the bioactivity potential of the documented plant species. The following 16 medicinal species (17.2%) appear not to be popular for the ethno medicinal uses documented in Zimbabwe: Androstachys johnsonii (aphrodisiac), Brachystegia boehmii (sexually transmitted infections), Bridelia mollis (cough), Carissa bispinosa (cough and diarrhoea), Coleochloa setifera (pneumonia), Commiphora marlothii (sexually transmitted infections), Corchorus tridens (backache), Entandrophragma caudatum (genital warts), Indigofera setiflora (diarrhoea), Pellaea sp. (chest pains), Prunus persica (diarrhoea), Searsia dentata (ulcers, diarrhoea and stomach problems), Searsia pyroides (cough), Spirostachys africana (venereal infections), Strychnos madagascariensis (sore eyes) and Vitex payos (cough) (Table 1). These findings of new ethno medicinal plant uses in south-central Zimbabwe shows the importance of the documentation of such traditional indigenous knowledge. Some of these species can therefore be targeted for phytochemical and pharmacological studies with the aim of identifying active ingredients contained by such plants resulting in them having unique therapeutic uses.

This review showed substantial commonality in the general use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe, the other regions of Zimbabwe and the rest of the world. For example, ten plant species used to treat at least four ailments in south-central Zimbabwe include Albizia antunesiana (six ailments), Annona stenophylla (four ailments), Cassia abbreviata (five ailments), Elephantorrhiza goetzei (four ailments), Flueggea virosa (four ailments), Kirkia acuminata (five ailments), Peltophorum africanum (four ailments), Pterocarpus angolensis (four ailments), Sansevieria hyacinthoides (five ailments), Strychnos cocculoides (five ailments) and Ziziphus mucronata (four ailments) (Table 1). With the exception of Sansevieria hyacinthoides, the other nine species have been documented by Gelfand et al. [1] as valuable medicinal plants in most regions of Zimbabwe with at least six medicinal applications each. Literature search showed that the roots of Albizia antunesiana are widely used in tropical Africa to treat abdominal pains, cuts, depressed fontanelle in infants, gonorrhoea and other sexually transmitted diseases, infertility in women, painful and swollen legs, pneumonia, prevent abortion, sore eyes, sore throat, tonsillitis, tuberculosis and ulcers [147]. A bark infusion of Albizia antunesiana is taken to treat constipation and applied externally to cuts; whereas crushed leaves are used as an enema for their purgative action and as a dressing to treat oedema of the legs [147]. Previous research by Gelfand et al. [1] showed wide use of Annona stenophylla in traditional medicine in Zimbabwe. Infusion of Annona stenophylla root or bark is used to treat abdominal pains, boils, chest pains, constipation, diarrhoea, dysmenorrhea, hiccoughs, oedema, sexually transmitted diseases and sprains [1]. All plant parts of Cassia abbreviata are used in tropical Africa to treat gastro-intestinal disorders, bilharzia, diarrhoea, dysmenorrhea, eye problems, haematuria, headache, malaria, pneumonia, snakebites, toothache and venereal diseases [68]. Decoction of all plant parts of Cassia abbreviata are used as aphrodisiac, abortifacient, purgative, tonic and vermifuge [68]. Root infusion of Elephantorrhiza goetzei is widely used in Zimbabwe as remedy for abdominal pains, backache, bilharzia, constipation, depressed fontenelle, diarrhoea and gonorrhea [1]. Flueggea virosa is an important medicinal plant in tropical Africa, used for the treatment of a wide variety of ailments, alone or in combination with other plants. All plant parts of Flueggea virosa are used to treat frigidity, liver, bile, kidney, testicular inflammation, sterility, urinary and venereal diseases [56]. All plant parts of Kirkia acuminata are used in traditional medicine in Zimbabwe as herbal medicine for abdominal pains, antidote, cough, emetic and wounds [1]. The bark and root extracts of Peltophorum africanum are traditionally used in southern Africa to treat acute and chronic pains, boosting resistance to diseases, depression, diarrhoea, dysentery, infertility, intestinal parasites and wounds [84]. The bark of Pterocarpus angolensis is widely used in tropical Africa as an astringent to treat diarrhoea, heavy menstruation, nose bleeding, headache, stomachache, schistosomiasis, sores and skin problems [148]. Leaves, rhizomes and roots of Sansevieria hyacinthoides are widely used in tropical Africa to treat ear infections, haemorrhoids, intestinal worms, measles, prevention of miscarriage, sexually transmitted infections, stomach disorders, toothache and ulcers [31]. All plant parts of Strychnos cocculoides are widely used in Zimbabwe to treat abdominal pains, amenorrhoea, cough, diarrhoea, gonorrhea, hydrocele, infertility, sore eyes and sore throat [1]. Medicines obtained from infusion of the roots, bark, leaves and/or fruits of Ziziphus mucronata are used to treat bilharzia, boils, chronic cough, depressed fontanelle, diarrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, infertility in women, menorrhagia, oedema, pneumonia, snake bite, toothache, venereal diseases and wounds [1].

Future research and perspectives

This review showed that local people in south-central Zimbabwe rely on traditional medicines to treat a wide spectrum of human ailments and are knowledgeable about the identities and applications of medicinal plants. Many people in south-central Zimbabwe are still dependent on medicinal plants, at least for the treatment of basic human ailments like cold, cough, diarrhoea, fever, skin infections, sexually transmitted infections, sore eyes and tooth infections. Data collected in the present review illustrates that gastro-intestinal disorders and sexually transmitted infections are treated with the highest number of medicinal plant species. These findings correlate strongly with observations made by Ribeiro et al. [142] that cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery are a major concern in Mozambique and southern Africa as well as findings made by Van Vuuren and Naidoo [143] that sexually transmitted infections are a major public health concern in developing countries. Reports of similar medicinal applications of the documented plants in south-central Zimbabwe, other regions of Zimbabwe and the rest of the world indicate that these species are valuable sources of ethnomedicines. This comparative analysis strengthens the firm belief that traditional indigenous knowledge represent not only an important heritage, developed over the centuries, but also considerable mass of data that should be exploited in order to provide new and useful knowledge on plant resources. It is therefore, necessary to preserve this indigenous knowledge on traditional medicines by proper documentation, identification of plant species used, herbal preparation and dosage. This inventory will assist future workers on the selection of herbal plants to evaluate for phytochemical safety and pharmaceutical efficacy. There is also need for more research on the active compounds of these herbal medicines, some of which have already shown interesting biological and pharmacological activities as shown in Table 1. There is need to establish the link between the biological activity and particular compounds responsible for the wide use of these medicinal plants. The documented indigenous knowledge in south-central Zimbabwe and available scientific literature strongly suggests that at least some of the plants used as herbal medicines can be potential sources of newer drugs.

At the present moment, phytochemistry and pharmacological analysis of traditional medicines occupy a key position in medicinal plant research and indigenous knowledge systems. Sharing of such knowledge is crucial for maintaining options for the use of traditional medicines, particularly as use of alternative medicine is growing because of its moderate costs and increasing faith in herbal medicines. Significant levels of global knowledge on conventional pharmaceuticals originated from indigenous traditional knowledge. For example, many of the conventional drugs available on the market today have a long history of use as traditional medicines, among them are aspirin, opium and quinine. While south-central Zimbabwe is endowed with a strong culture of herbal medicine usage for primary health care, there is need to standardize the drug preparation, dosage and route of administration. Validating the correlations of the ethno medicinal uses, bioactive substances, biological and pharmacological effects is of special importance and is still the primary task for future research. Efforts are also needed to investigate the physiological and biochemical functions demonstrated by these species, identifying the individual bioactive natural products and illustrate their mechanisms of action.

Like most African countries, Zimbabwe is an important repository of medicinal plants usage in primary healthcare. This is reflected in the great diversity of plants used for medicinal purposes in south-central Zimbabwe as well as in the wide range of their applications and associated traditional medicine procedures. There is a growing upsurge in demand for traditional medicines in Zimbabwe for various human ailments. As demand for medicinal plants continue to accelerate, awareness creation should be made among local communities to ensure sustainable use and conservation of the medicinal plants. A collaborative approach for sustainable use, conservation and management of medicinal plants should be put into place and involve all stakeholders. Communities in south-central Zimbabwe should be actively involved in plant resource management as they depend on these natural resources for their primary healthcare needs. It is hoped that this will strike a balance between meeting their health needs and wise use of plant resources to ensure sustainable development. The most serious threats to medicinal plants, like any other forms of biodiversity are habitat loss and fragmentation, climate change and invasive species. It is not known whether over-exploitation of medicinal plants is an issue in south-central Zimbabwe. However, future studies in south-central Zimbabwe should focus on how local communities use and manage medicinal plants. Such studies will help in understanding how local communities relate to the plant resources that they use as medicines.

References

  1. 1.

    Gelfand M, Drummond RB, Mavi S, Ndemera B: The traditional medical practitioner in Zimbabwe: his principles of practice and pharmacopoeia. 1985, Gweru: Mambo Press

  2. 2.

    Cunningham AB: An Investigation of the herbal medicine trade in Natal/KwaZulu. 1988, Pietermaritzburg: Investigational Report No 29 Institute of Natural Resources

  3. 3.

    Hostettmann K, Marston A, Ndjoko K, Wolfender J-L: The potential of African medicinal plants as a source of drugs. Curr Organic Chem. 2000, 4: 973-1010. 10.2174/1385272003375923.

  4. 4.

    Kambizi L, Afolayan AJ: An ethnobotanical study of plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (Njovhera) in Guruve District, Zimbabwe. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001, 77: 5-9. 10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00251-3.

  5. 5.

    Mukamuri B: Use of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe’s urban and rural areas. Zimbabwe Sci News. 1998, 32: 42-45.

  6. 6.

    Gerhardt K, Nemarundwe N: Participatory planting and management of indigenous trees: lessons from Chivi District, Zimbabwe. Agric Human Values. 2006, 23: 231-243. 10.1007/s10460-005-6109-2.

  7. 7.

    Shoko T: Karanga traditional medicine and healing. Afr J Trad CAM. 2007, 4: 501-509.

  8. 8.

    Maroyi A: Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Nhema communal area, Zimbabwe. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 136: 347-354. 10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.003.

  9. 9.

    Chigora P, Masocha R, Mutenheri F: The role of indigenous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailments in rural Zimbabwe: the case of Mutirikwi communal lands. J Sustainable Develop Africa. 2007, 9: 26-43.

  10. 10.

    Mabogo DEN: The ethnobotany of the VhaVenda. MSc Thesis. 1990, Pretoria: University of Pretoria

  11. 11.

    Deutschländer MS, Lall N, Van De Venter M: Plant species used in the treatment of diabetes by South African traditional healers: an inventory. Pharmaceut Biol. 2009, 47: 348-365. 10.1080/13880200902752959.

  12. 12.

    Van Wyk B-E, Van Oudtshoorn B, Gericke N: medicinal plants of South Africa. 2009, Pretoria: Briza Publications Pretoria

  13. 13.

    Chitemerere TA, Mukanganyama S: In vitro antibacterial activity of selected medicinal plants from Zimbabwe. African J Pl Sci Biotech. 2011, 5: 1-7.

  14. 14.

    Wauthoz N, Balde A, Balde ES, Van Damme M, Duez P: Ethnopharmacology of Mangifera indica L. bark and pharmacological studies of its cain C-Glucosylxanthone, Mangiferin. Int J Biomed Pharmaceut Sci. 2007, 1: 112-119.

  15. 15.

    Mølgaard P, Nielsen SB, Rasmussen DE, Drummond RB, Makaza N, Andreassen J: Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwean plants traditionally used against Schistosomiasis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001, 74: 257-264. 10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00377-9.

  16. 16.

    Paiva PMG, Gomes FS, Napoleão TH, Sá RA, Correia MTS, Coelho LCBB: Antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins from plants. Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology. Edited by: Mendez-Vilas A. 2010, Brazil: Formatex, 396-406.

  17. 17.

    Rea AI, Schmidt JM, Setzer WN, Sibanda S, Taylor C, Gwebu ET: Cytotoxic activity of Ozoroa insignis from Zimbabwe. Fitoterapia. 2003, 74: 732-735. 10.1016/j.fitote.2003.08.007.

  18. 18.

    Ojewole JAO, Mawoza T, Chiwororo WDH, Owira PMO: Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst. [Marula] (Anacardiaceae): a review of its phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology and its ethnomedicinal uses. Phyto. Res. 2010, 24: 633-639.

  19. 19.

    Stafford GI, Jäger AK, Van Staden J: African psychoactive plants. African Natural Plant Products: New Discoveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality. Edited by: Ho C-T, Juliani HR, Simon J. 2009, Washington, DC: ACS Symposium Series American Chemical Society, 323-346.

  20. 20.

    Mdee LK, Yeboah SO, Abegaz BM: Rhuschalcones II-VI, five new bichalcones from the root bark of Rhus pyroides. J Nat Prod. 2003, 66: 599-604. 10.1021/np020138q.

  21. 21.

    Dushimemaria F, Mumbengegwi DR, Du Preez I, Bock R: Qualitative phytochemical screening and in vitro antimicrobial effects of plant extracts of Searsia tenuinervis. J Res Microbes. 2012, 1: 88-95.

  22. 22.

    Munodawafa T, Chagonda LS, Viol I, Muchuweti M, Moyo SR: Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of some Zimbabwean traditional medicinal plants. Drug Plants 111. Edited by: Govil JN, Singh VK. 2010, Houston: Studium Press LLC, 363-373.

  23. 23.

    Patel S: Food, pharmaceutical and industrial potential of Carissa genus: an overview. 2012, Biotechnol: Rev Environ Sci

  24. 24.

    Mavi S: Medicinal plants and their uses in Zimbabwe. Indigenous Knowledge and its Uses in Southern Africa. Edited by: Norman H, Snyman I, Cohen M. 1996, Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 67-73.

  25. 25.

    Maroyi A: Traditional homegardens and rural livelihoods in Nhema, Zimbabwe: a sustainable agroforestry system. Int J Sust Develop World Ecol. 2009, 16: 1-8. 10.1080/13504500902745895.

  26. 26.

    Schmelzer GH: Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11(1): Medicinal Plants 1. Edited by: Schmelzer GH, Gurib-Fakim A. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 153-158.

  27. 27.

    Hassan KA, Brenda AT, Patrick V, Patrick OE: In vivo antidiarrheal activity of the ethanolic leaf extract of Catharanthus roseus Linn. (Apocyanaceae) in Wistar rats. African J Pharm and Pharmacol. 2011, 5: 1797-1800.

  28. 28.

    van de Venter M, Roux S, Bungu LC, Louw J, Crouch NR, Grace MO, Maharaj V, Pillay P, Sewnarian P, Bhagwandin N, Folb P: Antidiabetic screening and scoring of 11 plants traditionally used in South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 119: 81-86. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.05.031.

  29. 29.

    Msonthi JD, Magombo D: Medicinal herbs in Malaria and their uses. Hamdard Medicus. 1983, 20: 94-100.

  30. 30.

    Hassan HS, Ahmadu AA, Hassan AS: Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Asparagus africanus root extract. Afr J Trad CAM. 2008, 5: 27-31.

  31. 31.

    Takawira-Nyenya R, Stedje B: Ethnobotanical studies in the genus Sansevieria Thunb. (Asparagaceae) in Zimbabwe. Ethno Res Applicat. 2011, 9: 421-443.

  32. 32.

    Hedberg I, Staugard F: Traditional medicinal plants: traditional medicine in Botswana. 1989, Gaborone: Ipeleng Publishers

  33. 33.

    Case O: An assessment of medicinal hemp plant extracts as natural antibiotic and immune modulation phytotherapies. MSc Thesis. 2005, Cape Town: University of the Western Cape

  34. 34.

    Aliero AA, Jimoh FO, Afolayan AJ: Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Sansevieria hyacinthoides. Int J Pure Appl Sci. 2008, 2: 103-110.

  35. 35.

    Botes L, van der Westhuizen FH, Loots DT: Phytochemical contents and antioxidant capacities of two Aloe greatheadii var. davyana extracts. Molecules. 2008, 13: 2169-2180. 10.3390/molecules13092169.

  36. 36.

    Jodanus N: Brachylaena discolor DC. 2003, http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/brachylaendiscol.htm,

  37. 37.

    Becker JV, van der Merwe MM, Van Brummelen AC, Pillay P, Crampton BG, Mmutlane EM, Parkinson C, Van Heerden FR, Crouch NR, Smith PJ, Mancama DT, Maharaj VJ: In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of Dicoma anomala subsp. gerrardii (Asteraceae): identification of its main active constituent, structure-activity relationship studies and gene expression profiling. Malar J. 2011, 10: 295-10.1186/1475-2875-10-295.

  38. 38.

    Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Díaz DP, Barocio Y: Peruvian plants canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze), Hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris) and corpus way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acne. Arnaldoa. 2008, 15: 149-152.

  39. 39.

    Jimoh FO, Adedapo AA, Afolayan AJ: Comparison of the nutritive value, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Sonchus asper and Sonchus oleraceus. Rec Nat Prod. 2011, 5: 29-42.

  40. 40.

    Paraskeva MP, Van Vuuren SF, Van Zyl RL, Davids H, Viljoen AM: The in vitro biological activity of selected South African Commiphora species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 119: 673-679. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.029.

  41. 41.

    Bosch CH: Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) N.Robson. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2: Vegetables. Edited by: Grubben GJH, Denton OA. 2004, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 380-381.

  42. 42.

    Da Silva G, Taniça M, Rocha J, Serrano R, Gomes ET, Sepodes B: In vivo anti-inflammatory effect and toxicological screening of Maytenus heterophylla and Maytenus senegalensis extracts. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2000, 30: 693-700.

  43. 43.

    Peni J, Elinge CM, Yusuf H, Itodo AU, Agaie BM, Mbongo AN, Chogo E: Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of Parinari curatellifolia stem extract. J Med Plant Res. 2010, 4: 2099-2102.

  44. 44.

    More G, Tshikalange TE, Lall N, Botha F, Meyer JJM: Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants against oral microorganisms. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 119: 473-477. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.001.

  45. 45.

    Dibwe DF, Awale S, Kadota S, Tezuka Y: Damnacanthal from the Congolese medicinal plant Garcinia huillensis has a potent preferential cytotoxicity against human pancreatic cancer PANC-1 cells. Phytother Res. 2012, 26: 1920-1926. 10.1002/ptr.4672.

  46. 46.

    Magadula JJ, Suleimani HO: Cytotoxic and anti‒HIV activities of some Tanzanian Garcinia species. Tanzania J Health Res. 2010, 12: 1-7.

  47. 47.

    Wilkins-Ellert MH: Cucumis anguria L. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2: Vegetables. Edited by: Grubben GJH, Denton OA. 2004, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 238-242.

  48. 48.

    Cai L, Wei GX, van der Bijl P, Wu CD: Namibian chewing stick, Diospyros lycioides, contains antibacterial compounds against oral pathogens. J Agric Food Chem. 2000, 48: 909-914. 10.1021/jf9909914.

  49. 49.

    Mujuru L: Diospyros lycioides Desf. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 16: Fibres. Edited by: Brink M, Achigan-Dako EG. 2012, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 126-129.

  50. 50.

    Adeniyi BA, Odelola HA, Oso BA: Antimicrobial potentials of Diospyros mespiliformis (Ebenaceae). Afr J Med Sci. 1996, 25: 221-224.

  51. 51.

    Pretorius JC, Magama S, Zietsman PC: Purification and identification of antibacterial compounds from Euclea crispa subsp crispa (Ebenaceae) leaves. S Afr J Bot. 2003, 69: 579-586.

  52. 52.

    Samie A, Obi CL, Bessong PO, Namrita L: Activity profiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from rural Venda communities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterial species. Afr J Biotech. 2005, 4: 1443-1451.

  53. 53.

    Molotja GM, Ligavha-Mbelengwa MH, Bhat RB: Antifungal activity of root, bark, leaf and soil extracts of Androstachys johnsonii Prain. Afr J Biotech. 2011, 10: 5725-5727.

  54. 54.

    Ngueyema TA, Brusotti G, Caccialanza G, Finzi PV: The genus Bridelia: a phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009, 124: 339-349. 10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.019.

  55. 55.

    Madureira AM, Ramalhete C, Mulhovo S, Duarte A, Ferreira M-JU: Antibacterial activity of some African medicinal plants used traditionally against infectious diseases. Pharmaceut Biol. 2012, 50: 481-489. 10.3109/13880209.2011.615841.

  56. 56.

    Tabuti JRS: Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11(1): Medicinal Plants 1. Edited by: Schmelzer GH, Gurib-Fakim A. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 305-308.

  57. 57.

    Ramalhete C, Lopes D, Mulhovo S, Rosário VE, Ferreira MJU: Antimalarial activity of some plants traditionally used in Mozambique. Workshop Plantas Medicinais e Fitoterapêuticas nos Trópicos. IICT/CCCM, 29, 30 e 31 de Outubro de. 2008, http://www2.iict.pt/archive/doc/C_Ramalhete_wrkshp_plts_medic.pdf,

  58. 58.

    Dickson RA, Houghton PJ, Hylands PJ, Gibbons S: Antimicrobial, resistance-modifying effects, antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of Mezoneuron benthamianum Baill., Securinega virosa Roxb. & Willd. and Microglossa pyrifolia Lam. Phytoth Res. 2006, 20: 41-45. 10.1002/ptr.1799.

  59. 59.

    Moshi MJ, Kapingu MC, Uiso FC, Mbwambo ZH, Mahunnah RLA: Some pharmacological properties of an aqueous extract of Securinega virosa roots. Pharmaceut Biol. 2000, 38: 214-221.

  60. 60.

    Ragunathan M, Solomon M: The study of spiritual remedies in orthodox rural churches and traditional medicinal practice in Gondar Zuria district, Northwestern Ethiopia. 2009, http://www.emanuscript.in/sample_1.pdf,

  61. 61.

    Mmushi TJ: Screening, isolation and purification of bioactive compounds with antibacterial activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis. MSc Thesis. 2011, Mangweng: University of Limpopo

  62. 62.

    Ilavarasan J, Mallika M, Venkataraman S: Anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activity of Ricinus communis root extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 103: 478-480. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.07.029.

  63. 63.

    Jena J, Gupta AK: Ricinus communis Linn: a phytopharmacological review. Int J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci. 2012, 4: 25-29.

  64. 64.

    Mulaudzi RB, Ndhlala AR, Kulkarni MG, Finnie JF, Van Staden J: Antimicrobial properties and phenolic contents of medicinal plants used by the Venda people for conditions related to venereal diseases. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 135: 330-337. 10.1016/j.jep.2011.03.022.

  65. 65.

    Amoo SO, Aremu AO, Moyo M, Van Staden J: Antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase-inhibitory properties of long-term stored medicinal plants. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012, 12: 87-10.1186/1472-6882-12-87.

  66. 66.

    Adedapo AA, Sofidiya MO, Masika PJ, Afolayan AJ: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the aqueous extract of Acacia karroo stem bark in experimental animals. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008, 103: 397-400. 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2008.00317.x.

  67. 67.

    Nielsen TRH, Kuete V, Jäger AK, Meyer JJM, Lall N: Antimicrobial activity of selected South African medicinal plants. BMC Compl Altern Med. 2012, 12: 74-10.1186/1472-6882-12-74.

  68. 68.

    Kawanga V: Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11(1): Medicinal Plants 1. Edited by: Schmelzer GH, Gurib-Fakim A. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 144-146.

  69. 69.

    Connelly MP, Fabiano E, Patel IH, Kinyanjui SM, Mberu EK, Watkins WM: Antimalarial activity in crude extracts of Malawian medicinal plants. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1996, 90: 597-602.

  70. 70.

    Leteane MM, Ngwenya BN, Muzila M, Namushe A, Mwinga J, Musonda R, Moyo S, Mengestu YB, Abegaz BM, Andrae-Marobela K: Old plants newly discovered: Cassia sieberiana D.C. and Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Oliv.root extracts inhibit in vitro HIV-1c replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by different modes of action. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 141: 48-56. 10.1016/j.jep.2012.01.044.

  71. 71.

    Lemmens RHMJ: Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 7(1): Timbers 1. Edited by: Louppe D, Oteng-Amoako AA, Brink M. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 202-207.

  72. 72.

    Gundidza M, Gaza N: Antimicrobial activity of Dalbergia melanoxylon extracts. J Ethnopharmacol. 1993, 40: 127-130. 10.1016/0378-8741(93)90057-C.

  73. 73.

    Wanjala CC, Majinda RR: A new stilbene glycoside from Elephantorrhiza goetzei. Fitoterapia. 2001, 72: 649-655. 10.1016/S0367-326X(01)00295-7.

  74. 74.

    Omer MEA, Al Magboul AZ, El Egami AA: Sudanese plants used in folkloric medicine: screening for antibacterial activity. Part IX. Fitoterapia. 1998, 69: 542-545.

  75. 75.

    Taniguchi M, Kubo I: Ethnobotanical drug discovery based on medicine men’s trials in the african savanna: screening of east African plants for antimicrobial activity II. J Nat Prod. 1993, 56: 1539-1546. 10.1021/np50099a012.

  76. 76.

    Nguyen PH, Le TV, Thuong PT, Dao TT, Ndinteh DT, Mbafor JT, Kang KW, Oh WK: Cytotoxic and PTP1B inhibitory activities from Erythrina abyssinica. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2009, 19: 6745-6749. 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.09.108.

  77. 77.

    Okeleye BI, Samie A, Bessong PO, Mkwetshana NF, Green E, Clarke AM, Ndip RN: Crude ethyl acetate extract of the stem bark of Peltophorum africanum (Sond, Fabaceae) possessing in vitro inhibitory and bactericidal activity against clinical isolates of Helicobacter pylori. J Med Plant Res. 2010, 4: 1432-1440.

  78. 78.

    Ighodaro OM, Agunbiade SO, Omole JO, Kuti OA: Evaluation of the chemical, nutritional, antimicrobial and antioxidant-vitamin profiles of Piliostigma thonningii leaves (Nigerian species). Res J Med Plants. 2012, 6: 537-543. 10.3923/rjmp.2012.537.543.

  79. 79.

    Samie A, Housein A, Lall N, Meyer JJ: Crude extracts of, and purified compounds from, Pterocarpus angolensis, and the essential oil of Lippia javanica: their in-vitro cytotoxicities and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolytica. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2009, 103: 427-439. 10.1179/136485909X435111.

  80. 80.

    Kota GC, Karthikeyan M, Kannan M, Rajasekar : Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.: a phytopharmacological review. Int J Res Pharmaceut Biomed Sci. 2012, 3: 78-81.

  81. 81.

    Marini-Bettolo GB, Patamia M, Nicoletti M, Galeffi C, Messana I: Research on African medicinal plants ii. Hypoxosie, a new glucoside of uncommon structure from Hypoxis obtusa Burch. Tetrahedron. 1982, 38: 1683-1687. 10.1016/0040-4020(82)80147-6.

  82. 82.

    Msonthi JD, Toyota M, Marston A, Hostettmann K: A phenolic glycoside from Hypoxis obtusa. Phytochem. 1990, 29: 3977-3979. 10.1016/0031-9422(90)85384-R.

  83. 83.

    Akah PA, Odo CI: Hepatoprotective effect of the solvent fractions of the stem of Hoslundia opposita Vahl (Lamiaceae) against carbon tetrachloride- and paracetamol-induced liver damage in rats. Int J Green Pharm. 2010, 4: 54-58. 10.4103/0973-8258.62159.

  84. 84.

    Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG: The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern Africa. 1962, London: E & S Livingstone

  85. 85.

    Gundidza GM, Deans SG, Svoboda KP, Mavi S: Antimicrobial activity of essential oil from Hoslundia opposita. Cent Afr J Med. 1992, 38: 290-293.

  86. 86.

    El-Ansari MA, Aboutabl EA, Farrag ARH, Sharaf M, Hawas UW, Soliman GM, El-Seed GS: Phytochemical and pharmacological studies on Leonotis leonurus. Pharm Biol. 2009, 47: 894-902. 10.1080/13880200902942428.

  87. 87.

    Nyamoita MG: Anti-larval compounds from Vitex schiliebenii and Vitex payos. MSc Thesis. 2011, Nairobi: Kenyatta University

  88. 88.

    Batista R, Júnior AS, De Oliveira AB: Plant-derived antimalarial agents: new leads and efficient phytomedicines. Part II. non-alkaloidal natural products. Molecules. 2009, 14: 3037-3072. 10.3390/molecules14083037.

  89. 89.

    Hoet S, Pieters L, Muccioli GG, Habib-Jiwan JL, Opperdoes FR, Quetin-Leclercq J: Antitrypanosomal activity of triterpenoids and sterols from the leaves of Strychnos spinosa and related compounds. J Nat Products. 2007, 70: 1360-1363. 10.1021/np070038q.

  90. 90.

    Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S: Agroforestree database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009, http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=272,

  91. 91.

    Chávez D, Chai H-B, Chagwedera TE, Gao Q, Farnsworth NR, Cordell GA, Pezzuto JM, Kinghorn AD: Novel stilbenes isolated from the root bark of Ekebergia benguelensis. Tetrahedron Lett. 2001, 42: 3685-3688. 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)00560-3.

  92. 92.

    Jonker SA, Nkunya MHH, Mwamtobe L, Geenevase J, Koomen G-J: A new coumarin and polyhydroxysqualenes from Ekebergia benguelensis. Nat Prod Lett. 1997, 10: 245-248. 10.1080/10575639708043736.

  93. 93.

    Ansell SM, Taylor DAH: Limonoids from the seed of Entandrophragma caudatum. Phytochem. 1988, 27: 1218-1220. 10.1016/0031-9422(88)80311-X.

  94. 94.

    Grosvenor PW, Gothard PK, McWilliams NC, Supriono A, Gray DO: Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia, part i: uses. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995, 45: 75-95. 10.1016/0378-8741(94)01209-I.

  95. 95.

    Aiyelero OM, Ibrahim ZG, Yaro AH: Analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of the methanol leaf extract of Ficus ingens (Moraceae) in rodents. Nigerian J Pharm Sci. 2009, 8: 79-86.

  96. 96.

    Eldeen IMS, Elgorashi EE, Van Staden J: Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cholinesterase and mutagenic effects of extracts obtained from some trees used in South African traditional medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 102: 457-464. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.049.

  97. 97.

    Lumbile AU, Mogotsi KK: Ficus sur Forssk. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 7(1): Timbers 1. Edited by: Louppe D, Oteng-Amoako AA, Brink M. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 285-288.

  98. 98.

    Olusesan AG, Ebele OC-L, Onwuegbuchulam ON, Olorunmola EJ: Preliminary in-vitro antibacterial activities of ethanolic extracts of Ficus sycomorus Linn. and Ficus platyphylla Del. (Moraceae). Afr J Microbiol Res. 2010, 4: 598-601.

  99. 99.

    Sandabe UK, Onyeyili PA, Chibuzo GA: Phytochemical screening and effect of aqueous extract of Ficus sycomorus L. (Moraceae) stembark on muscular activity in laboratory animals. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 103: 481-483. 10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.025.

  100. 100.

    Monera TG, Maponga CC: Prevalence and patterns of Moringa oleifera use among HIV positive patients in Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional survey. J Public Health Afr. 2012, 3: 22-24.

  101. 101.

    Goyal BR, Agrawal BB, Goyal RK, Mehta AA: Phyto-pharmacology of Moringa oleifera Lam.: an overview. Natural Prod Radiance. 2007, 6: 347-353.

  102. 102.

    Molefe-Khamanga DM, Mooketsi NA, Matsabisa MG, Kensley RM: Qualitative phytochemical studies of solvent extracts from Myrothamnus flabellifolius. Online Int J Med Pl Res. 2012, 1: 1-5.

  103. 103.

    Motlhanka DMT, Mathapa G: Antioxidant activities of crude extracts from medicinal plants used by diabetic patients in Eastern Botswana. J Med Plant Res. 2012, 6: 5460-5463.

  104. 104.

    Van Wyk B-E, Viljoen AM, Klepser ME, Ernst EJ, Keele D, Roling E, Van Vuuren S, Demirci B, Baúer KHC: The composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of the resurrection plant Myrothamnus flabellifolius. S Afr J Bot. 2002, 68: 100-105.

  105. 105.

    Bruneton J: Pharmacognosy: phytochemistry, medicinal plants. 1999, London: Intercept Ltd

  106. 106.

    Topco G, Yapar G, Turkmen Z, Goren GC, Oksuz S, Schilling JK, Kingston DGI: Ovarian antiproliferative activity directed isolation of triterpenoids from fruits of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Phytochem Lett. 2011, 4: 421-425. 10.1016/j.phytol.2011.05.002.

  107. 107.

    Babayi H, Kolo I, Okogun JI, Ijah UJJ: The antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Terminalia catappa against some pathogenic microorganisms. Biokemistri. 2004, 16: 106-111.

  108. 108.

    Gutiérrez RMP, Mitchell S, Solis RV: Psidium guajava: a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 117: 1-27. 10.1016/j.jep.2008.01.025.

  109. 109.

    Lozoya X, Bercerril G, Martinez M: Intraluminal perfusion model of in vitro guinea pig ileum as a model of study of the antidiarrheic properties of the guava (Psidium guajava). Arch Invest Med (Mex). 1990, 21: 155-162.

  110. 110.

    Jaiarj P, Khoohaswan P, Wongkrajang Y, Peungvicha P, Suriyawong P, Saraya MLS, Ruangsomboon O: Anticough and antimicrobial activities of Psidium guajava Linn. leaf extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 67: 203-212. 10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00022-7.

  111. 111.

    Jaiarj P, Wongkrajang Y, Thongpraditchote S, Peungvicha P, Bunyapraphatsara N, Opartkiattikul N: Guava leaf extract and topical haemostasis. Phytother Res. 2000, 14: 388-391. 10.1002/1099-1573(200008)14:5<388::AID-PTR638>3.0.CO;2-K.

  112. 112.

    Qian H, Nihorimbere V: Antioxidant power of phytochemicals from Psidium guajava leaf. J Zhejiang Univ Sci. 2004, 5: 676-683. 10.1631/jzus.2004.0676.

  113. 113.

    Makhafola TJ, Eloff JN: Five Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more than ten antibacterial compounds. S Afr J Sci. 2012, 108: Art. #689, http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v108i1/2.689

  114. 114.

    Maikai VA, Kobo PI, Maikai BVO: Antioxidant properties of Ximenia americana. Afr J Biotech. 2010, 9: 7744-7746.

  115. 115.

    Mulaudzi RB, Ndhlala AR, Kulkarni MG, Van Staden J: Pharmacological properties and protein binding capacity of phenolic extracts of some Venda medicinal plants used against cough and fever. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 143: 185-193. 10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.022.

  116. 116.

    Marx J: Investigation of the cytotoxic potential of aqueous extracts of Dicerocaryum zanguebarium and Urginea sanguinea in vitro. MSc Thesis. 2005, Pretoria: University of Pretoria

  117. 117.

    Ojewole JA: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of Securidaca longepedunculata (Fresen.) [Polygalaceae] root-bark aqueous extract. Inflammopharmacol. 2008, 16: 174-181. 10.1007/s10787-007-0016-7.

  118. 118.

    Gundidza M, Sibanda M: Antimicrobial activities of Ziziphus abyssinica and Berchemia discolor. Cent Afr J Med. 1991, 37: 80-83.

  119. 119.

    Chin YW, Mdee LK, Mbwambo ZH, Mi Q, Chai HB, Cragg GM, Swanson SM, Kinghorn AD: Prenylated flavonoids from the root bark of Berchemia discolor, a Tanzanian medicinal plant. J Nat Prod. 2006, 69: 1649-1652. 10.1021/np060418w.

  120. 120.

    Olajuyigbe OO, Afolayan AJ: Antimicrobial potency of the ethanolic crude bark extract of Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp. mucronata Willd. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2012, 6: 724-730.

  121. 121.

    Christabel PH, Nishaa S, Vishnupriya M, Sasikumar JM, Gopalakrishnan VK: In vitro antioxidant studies and the scavenging potential of pulp and peel of Prunus persica i. fruit on different solvent systems. World J Pharm Res. 2012, 1: 1371-1386.

  122. 122.

    Kim Y, Koo B, Gong D, Lee Y, Ko J, Kim C: Comparative effect of Prunus persica L. BATSCH-water extract and tacrine (9-amino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroacridine hydrochloride) on concentration of extracellular acetylcholine in the rat hippo-campus. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003, 87: 149-154. 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00106-5.

  123. 123.

    Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A: Agroforestree database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009, http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=17989,

  124. 124.

    Halilu ME, Abubakar A, Garba MK, Isah AA: Antimicrobial and preliminary phytochemical studies of methanol extract of root bark of Crossopteryx febrifuga (Rubiaceae). J Appl Pharm Sci. 2012, 2: 66-70.

  125. 125.

    Salawu OA, Chindo BA, Tijani AY, Adzu B: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic and antiplasmodial effects of the methanolic extract of Crossopteryx febrifuga. J Med Plant Res. 2008, 2: 213-218.

  126. 126.

    De Boer HJ, Kool A, Broberg A, Mziray WR, Hedberg I, Levenfors JJ: Anti-fungal and anti-bacterial activity of some herbal remedies from Tanzania. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 96: 461-469. 10.1016/j.jep.2004.09.035.

  127. 127.

    Mbukwa E, Chacha M, Majinda RRT: Phytochemical constituents of Vangueria infausta: their radical scavenging and antimicrobial activities. Arkivoc. 2007, 9: 104-112.

  128. 128.

    Arias BÁ, Ramón-Laca L: Pharmacological properties of citrus and their ancient and medieval uses in the Mediterranean region. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 97: 89-95. 10.1016/j.jep.2004.10.019.

  129. 129.

    Chen YK, Li XS, Yang GY, Chen ZY, Hu QF, Miao MM: Phenolic compounds from Nicotiana tabacum and their biological activities. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2012, 14: 450-456. 10.1080/10286020.2012.669578.

  130. 130.

    Shvets SA, Gutsu ON, Kintia PK: Steroidal glycosides from Nicotiana tabacum L. seeds and their biological activity. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1996, 405: 247-257. 10.1007/978-1-4613-0413-5_22.

  131. 131.

    Matu EN: Solanum incanum L. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11(1): Medicinal Plants 1. Edited by: Schmelzer GH, Gurib-Fakim A. 2008, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 525-528.

  132. 132.

    Manase MJ, Mitaine-Offer AC, Pertuit D, Miyamoto T, Tanaka C, Delemasure S, Dutartre P, Duchamp O, Mirjolet JF, Lacaille-Dubois MA: Solanum incanum and S. heteracanthum as sources of biologically active steroid glycosides: confirmation of their synonymy. Fitoterapia. 2012, 83: 1115-1119. 10.1016/j.fitote.2012.04.024.

  133. 133.

    Kapoor BBS, Acharya S, Mishra R: Antimicrobial screening of some medicinal plants of the Rajasthan desert. 3rd International Conference on Biology, Environment and Chemistry IPCBEE Volume 46. Singapore: IACSIT Press. 2012, http://www.ipcbee.com/vol46/023-ICBEC2012-G20009.pdf,

  134. 134.

    Jaspers WJMM, Bashir AK, Zwaving JH, Malingré TM: Investigation of Grewia bicolorJuss. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986, 17: 205-211. 10.1016/0378-8741(86)90109-1.

  135. 135.

    Ghisalberti EL: Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae). Fitoterapia. 2000, 71: 467-486. 10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00202-1.

  136. 136.

    Manenzhe NJ, Potgieter N, Van Ree T: Composition and antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippia javanica. Phytochemistry. 2004, 65: 2333-2336. 10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.07.020.

  137. 137.

    Burkill HM: The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. 1995, Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens

  138. 138.

    Koné WM, Atindehou KK, Terreaux C, Hostettmann K, Traoré D, Dosso M: Traditional medicine in North Côte d’Ivoire: screening of 50 medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004, 93: 43-49. 10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.006.

  139. 139.

    Malhotra S, Singh AP: Medicinal properties of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Natural Product Radiance. 2003, 2: 296-301.

  140. 140.

    Ali BH, Blunden G, Tanira MO, Nemmar A: Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinaleRoscoe): a review of recent research. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008, 46: 409-420. 10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.085.

  141. 141.

    Flatie T, Gedif T, Asres K, Gebre-Mariam T: Ethnomedicinal survey of Berta ethnic group Assosa Zone, Benishangul-Gumuz regional state, mid-west Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2009, 5: 14-10.1186/1746-4269-5-14.

  142. 142.

    Ribeiro A, Romeiras MM, Tavares J, Faria MT: Ethnobotanical survey in Canhane village, district of Massingir, Mozambique: medicinal plants and traditional knowledge. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010, 6: 33-10.1186/1746-4269-6-33.

  143. 143.

    Van Vuuren SF, Naidoo D: An antimicrobial investigation of plants used traditionally in southern Africa to treat sexually transmitted infections. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 130: 552-558. 10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.045.

  144. 144.

    Zonyane S, Van Vuuren SF, Makunga NP: Pharmacological and phyto-chemical analysis of a medicinal plant mixture that is used as traditional medicine in Western Cape. Paper presented at South Africa Association of Botanist 38th Annual Conference, 15-18 January 2012. 2012, Pretoria: University of Pretoria, 124-

  145. 145.

    Bussmann RW, Sharon D: Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006, 2: 47-10.1186/1746-4269-2-47.

  146. 146.

    Holmstedt BR, Bruhn JG: Ethnopharmacology: a challenge. Ethnobotany, Evolution of a Discipline. Edited by: Schultes RE, Von Reis S. 1995, Portland: Dioscorides Press, 338-343.

  147. 147.

    Lemmens RHMJ: Albizia antunesiana Harms. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 7(1): Timbers 1. Edited by: Louppe D, Oteng-Amoako AA, Brink M. 2007, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 45-46.

  148. 148.

    Takawira-Nyenya R: Pterocarpus angolensis DC. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 3: Dyes and Tannins. Edited by: Jansen PCM, Cardon D. 2005, Wageningen: Prota Foundation, 126-130.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank four anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Biodiversity, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, University of Limpopo, Mankweng, South Africa
    • Alfred Maroyi
Authors
  1. Alfred Maroyi
    View author publications
    You can also search for this author in

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alfred Maroyi.

Additional information

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

AM conceptualized the study and wrote the manuscript. The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images.

Authors’ original file for figure 1

Authors’ original file for figure 2

Authors’ original file for figure 3

Rights and permissions

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Maroyi, A. Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: review and perspectives. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 9, 31 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

Download citation

Keywords

  • Conservation
  • Medicinal plants
  • South-central Zimbabwe
  • Traditional knowledge

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine

ISSN: 1746-4269

Contact us