Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in the mountainous regions of Semnan Province, Iran

Abstract

In mountainous areas, wild edible plants are an important part of the local diet. Climate change and anthropogenic activities have profound effects on wild edible plants in these areas. Ethnobotanical studies are important for understanding the use patterns and harvest impacts on these plants. In this regard, the Shahrood region, with its diverse historical/ethnic background, is an appropriate starting point to investigate exploitation patterns and impacts of harvest of wild edible plants. During 2021–2022, ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in 12 villages in the region using semi-structured interviews and participatory observations. Data collection included assessing wild edible plant species diversity, their habitats, collection time and quantities, plant parts used and methods of consumption and preparation. The data were analyzed using use report indicators, relative frequency of citations, and use value (UV). A total of 1086 use reports were documented from a total of 44 interviews. A total of 67 wild species (66 plants and 1 fungus) belonging to 54 genera and 24 families were used as edible in the study area. Rosaceae (9 species), Apiaceae (8), Lamiaceae (8), Asteraceae (7), and Amaryllidaceae (5) were the families with the most reported species. Allium (5 species) was the most diverse genus in terms of species diversity. Herbs were the most commonly used life form (79.1%), followed by shrubs (13.4%) and trees (6%). The most consumed plant parts were young leaves (25%) and young aerial parts (21.4%). There were 13 use categories identified. The majority of edible plants were collected in April–May, mainly from areas nearby villages (37.7%) and rangelands (33.7%). The most important edible plants in the study area were Allium iranicum (Wendelbo) Wendelbo (UV = 1.7), Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (1.5), Allium umbilicatum Boiss. (1.47), Tragopogon graminifolius DC. (1.38), Lepidium draba L. (1.27), Urtica dioica L. (1.18), Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (1.13), Malva neglecta Wallr. (1.11) and Eremurus sp. (1.09). Our results showed diverse and valuable knowledge for wild edible plants in this region, which should be considered in the conservation and management plans in the region.

Introduction

Plant biodiversity provides a variety of services to humans in the ecosystem, such as environmental services, food, medicine, fodder and wood [1,2,3]. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are plant species that grow naturally without being cultivated but may be used as a source of food [4,5,6]. They are an important part of local communities’ household food baskets [7, 8], and most rural communities in mountainous areas rely on these plants to meet their nutritional needs [3, 9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. They are also regarded as a means of survival for these local communities, particularly during times of drought, famine, and danger [7, 16]. WEPs play a vital role in local communities’ livelihoods, ensuring both food security and cultural preservation as well as cash generation [1, 3, 7, 8, 17,18,19,20]. They not only contribute material resources but also help to preserve local knowledge systems, traditions, and food cultures. Collecting and consuming WEPs not only provides cultural ecosystem services and promotes and strengthens social relationships [6, 21] but also alleviates the stress caused by environmental conflicts [8]. These plants and the food they produce are integral to the cultures of these societies, playing a crucial role in their lives [9, 22,23,24]. Additionally, these plants are easily accessible and provide low-cost food options [25].

Despite the numerous benefits these plants bring to local communities, many plant species and wild fungi are declining, with studies indicating the risk of extinction for some of these plants [2, 26, 27]. Several factors are at work in this case, including climate change, which is having an increasing impact on the abundance, distribution, and phenology of wild edible plants [28]. WEPs are generally threatened by threats to biodiversity [3]. As a result, understanding indigenous knowledge about WEPs is critical for assessing plant services, reducing the risk of knowledge extinction, recognizing local communities’ rights, and improving biodiversity conservation efforts [29]. Studying these plants is necessary not only to preserve them so that they are not forgotten, but also to preserve the plants’ valuable genetic resources for the health of future generations [3, 8, 30, 31].

Wild plant knowledge is an important component of traditional knowledge [5] because older generations of villagers have a wealth of knowledge about useful plants [32]. Therefore, it is critical to document sources of information, focusing particularly on wild edible plants [14, 33]. However, there is a notable absence of comprehensive reports documenting the usage of WEPs in east Semnan province, specifically Shahrood city. Despite the potential widespread consumption of WEPs by people residing in natural habitats such as Rangeland and forests in the region, the associated ethnobotanical knowledge remains largely unknown, particularly outside of Semnan Province. On the other hand, indigenous knowledge of WEPs use has only been passed down from generation to generation through oral communication. Most of the available ethnobotanical knowledge in Iran is limited to only medicinal aspects, and edible use has received very little attention. This study aimed to (a) document WEPs used by the people of Southeast of Alborz mountain in Shahrood, (b) record indigenous knowledge related to WEPs use, patterns of harvest and consumption by the local people of the region, (c) identify locally important species and marketed species and traditional foods in the region and (d) compare the WEPs of Shahrood with previously published studies on WEPs in Iran.

Materials and methods

The study area

Semnan Province, with an area of 97,491 square kilometers, is the sixth largest province in Iran. It is located between 34 degrees and 13 min to 37 degrees and 20 min north latitude and 51 degrees and 51 min east longitude. Shahrood is the province’s largest city, bordering the Alborz mountain range to the north and the desert plain to the south. The Shahrood municipality is located on the southern slope of the Alborz mountain chain, and its altitude decreases from north to south and leads to the desert plain. Bastam and Biyarajmand are the two central parts of Shahrood municipality. In this study, 12 villages in the Bastam district were chosen, including Tash, Negarman, Abarsij, Ali Kahi, Hossein Abad, Meyghan, Qale Nokharqan, Proo, Abr, Khij, Mazj, and Jilan (Fig. 1). This area has the highest plant diversity in the Shahrood municipality, including a variety of habitats, including grasslands, mountain steppes and forests, which are the dominant habitats because of their locations between the two Hyrcanian and Irano-Turanian floristic regions.

Fig. 1

Map of the study area and village locations

Data collection

Ethnobotanical data collection was carried out in 12 villages of Bastam district, Shahrood municipality, between April 2021 and May 2022 (Tables 1, 2). Local people, including local shepherds, village officials, housewives, farmers, and locals who collect WEPs for sale in urban markets, were interviewed (Fig. 2). Data were collected using participatory observations, free-listing and semi-structured interviews [7]. Research goals were explained to the participants, and verbal informed consent was obtained prior to interviews. The International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics was followed (ISE Code 2006). Information about the plant’s local name, the parts used, collection time, collection location, and details of uses were recorded. Demographic and socioeconomic data on the informants, such as gender, age, official education level and occupation, were also recorded. WEPs collection sites were visited several times during the data collection [34]. Used WEPs were photographed during the flowering or seeding time, and herbarium samples were collected and prepared. All plant samples were identified and deposited at the herbarium of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUMH). Plant scientific names were checked with WFO Plant List [35].

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the interviewees from rural areas of Shahrood

Table 2 Characteristics of the targeted localities and study participants

Fig. 2

Interviews with local people to collect information

Data analysis

The collected data were structured based on use reports in an Excel spreadsheet. The ethnobotanical importance indices, including usage reports (URs), relative frequency of citation (RFC), and usage value (UV), were calculated. The use report (UR) per species is the count of the number of informants who mention each use category for the species and the sum of all uses in each use category [36]. The frequency of citation (FC) per species is the sum of informants that cite a use for the species in the dataset [36]. The RFC is calculated by dividing the FC of a species by the total number of informants using the following formula:

$$RFC=FC/N$$

$$ (0 < {\text{RFC < }}1). $$

The usage value (UV) of WEPs was calculated using the following formula:

$$ UV = \left( {\sum {Ui} } \right)/N $$

where Ui is the count of uses mentioned by each informant for a specific wild edible plant, and N is the total number of informants [37]. All importance indices were calculated using the ethnobotany R package in R [38].

Jaccard index is calculated by comparison between present and previous studies from surrounding regional and other areas by analyzing the percentages of quoted species and their uses using the following formula [39]:

$$\text{JI}=\frac{\text{c}*100}{(\text{a}+\text{b}-\text{c})}$$

Results

In total, 44 informants provided data, with 24 women (54.5%) and 20 men (45.5%) providing information (Table 1). The respondents ranged in age from 27 to 83 years, with the majority being between the ages of 50 and 69 (54.5%). Furthermore, the general level of education was low, whereas younger people had a higher level of education (Table 2).

Table 3 Thirteen types of main local food categories with the number of species and URs for each use and examples of wild edible plants for each use category

Diversity of WEPs in the study area

In total, 67 wild edible plant species from 54 genera and 24 families and one mushroom were recorded to be used in the study area (Figs. 10 and 11). Table 4 summarizes the details of the plant species, life forms, parts used, collection times, and collection locations. Most of the plants used were herbs with 53 species (79.1%), followed by shrubs with nine species (13.4%), trees with four species (6%), and one mushroom species (1.5%) (Fig. 3a). Rosaceae was the dominant family with xx species (13.4%), followed by Apiaceae and Lamiaceae with eight species each (11.9%), Asteraceae with seven species (10.4%), Amaryllidaceae with five species (7.5%), Amaranthaceae and Caryophyllaceae with four each (5.9%), and Brassicaceae with three species (4.5%) (Fig. 4). At the genus level, Allium was the most common genus, with five species, followed by Ferula, Elwendia, Scorzonera, Vicia, Ziziphora, Stachys, Plantago, Crataegus, and Prunus, each with two species. While most of the species had one local name in the studied areas, some of them had more than one, such as Falcaria vulgaris, which had three local names (Table 4). Figure 10 shows images of some wild edible plants found in the study area.

Table 4 List of wild edible plants used by local people in Semnan Province (Shahrood), Iran. Families were presented in bold and species in italic

Fig. 3

a Life form contributions of wild edible plants in the study area (number of species), b plant parts used by locals, c modes of preparation of edible plants by the local community in the study area

Fig. 4

Plant families, along with the number of plant genera and species in each family, are used by local communities

Plant parts used

Young leaves (25%), with 28 reported species, were the most commonly used plant part, followed by young aerial parts (24 species, 21.4%), leaves (17 species, 15.2%), fruits (14 species, 12.5%), aerial parts (7 species, 6.2%), flowering aerial parts (5 species, 4.4%), seeds and stems (4 species each, 3.6%), and whole plants and flowers (3 species each, 2.7%). The bulb (2 species, 1.8%) and tuber (1 species, 0.9%) were the least used plant parts (Figs. 3b and 5a).

Fig. 5

Chord diagram, representing the distribution of 533 usage reports for 67 WEPs by 44 interviewees, a representing the types of WEPs for the use of different organs and b different consumption categories

Given the prevalence of herbaceous plants, it appears that young leaves and young aerial parts (46.4%) are the most edible parts of plants. Both are used at the early stage of the growth season when the plant parts are tender. Toward the end of the growth season, when the plant parts become less tender, leaves and aerial parts do not contribute greatly to the local diet. A number of species, such as Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, provide two or more edible parts during their growth cycle. The young aerial parts of the plant were used at the beginning of the vegetative stages, and seeds were used toward the end of the growth cycle. Some plants, such as Scorzonera paradoxa Fisch. & C. A.Mey., provide both the young leaves and the bulbs as edibles.

Diversity of use categories

In this study, 1086 consumption reports based on the eating habits of people in the study area were classified into thirteen usage categories (Table 3 and Fig. 5b). Among these categories, rice veg was the most cited consumption category with the most usage reports (37 species, 268 usage reports, 24.7%), followed by coco sabzi (28 species, 186 use reports, 17.1%), soup (39 species, 162 use reports, 15%), herb stew (32 species, 120 use reports, 11%), yogurt (16 species, 75 use reports, 7%), kashk (8 species, 71 usage reports, 6.5%), salad (11 varieties, 47 reports of use, 4.3%), herbal tea (5 varieties, 43 reports of use, 4%), veg bread (10 varieties, 40 reports of use, 3.7%), pickled (9 varieties, 23 reports of use, 2.1%), ripe fresh fruit (9 types, 23 usage reports, 2.1%), snack (10 types, 22 usage reports, 2%) and finally jam (3 species, 6 reports of use, 0.5%).

To prepare rice veg, 37 edible species were used in which each of these plants was consumed with rice after boiling in water. Rice veg primarily consists of young aerial parts and young leaves of plants such as Tragopogon graminifolius, which had the most reported species for this category (29 usage reports) (Table 5 and Fig. 6a). Twenty-eight 28 species were also used to prepare coco sabzi, including Falcaria vulgaris (18 usage reports). This category contained the most reported species, which were typically used in combination with other plants (Table 5 and Fig. 6b and i). Most species reported to be used in soup preparation are Rumex sp. (18 usage report) and Lepidium draba (15 use report). This category also includes all soups and noodle soups (Table 5 and Fig. 6c and d). To prepare the herb stew, a total of 32 species were used in different forms (Fig. 6f and m).

Table 5 Ten WEPs with the highest usage values (UVs)

Fig. 6

Source: research findings

Food containers prepared from WEPs that are ready for consumption: a Rice veg, different organs of Tragopogon graminifolius, b Coco sabzi, young leaves of Eremurus sp., c Soup, young aerial parts of Allium grande, d Soup, young leaves of Rumex sp. with different organs of Allium umbilicatum, e Veg bread, young aerial parts of Lepidium draba, f Herb stew leaves of Rumex sp. and Polygonum sp. with the leaves of Malva neglecta, g Kashk, leaves of Urtica dioica, h Yogurt, young aerial parts of Suaeda acuminata (CAMey.) Moq., i Coco sabzi, leaves of Allium iranicum, j Yogurt leaves of Blitum virgatum, k Veg bread leaves of Allium umbilicatum, along with young leaves of Lepidium draba, l Pickled, Ferula sp. m Herb stew, leaves of Eremurus sp.

There were 16 varieties of plants that were used for yogurt. Fresh leaves and young aerial parts of Blitum virgatum L. are boiled in water and then spitted and added to yogurt (boryni) (Fig. 6j). There were also herbs in this consumption category that are added to cooked rice with yogurt, such as Suaeda acuminata (C.A.Mey.) Moq (Fig. 6h), and finally, there are plants that are added to yogurt to improve its flavor, such as Mentha longifolia. There are also eight species used to make kashk, with five of them providing raw materials, such as Urtica dioica (Fig. 6g). Mentha longifolia is one of three species used to flavor kashk.

There are two types of plants used in the preparation of salad (11 species), including a number of plants that are consumed raw in the local people’s tradition, such as Allium paradoxum (M.Bieb.) G. Don and Tragopogon graminifolius and plants that are added to the salad in a dry form to increase the taste, such as Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. and Mentha longifolia plants used to make vegetable bread (9 species), including Allium umbilicatum and Atriplex micrantha Ledeb. or Lepidium draba are mostly cooked before being added to the dough with spices (Fig. 6e and k).

Other categories are considered (5 types of herbal tea, 10 types of snacks, 9 types of fruits, 3 types of jams, and 9 types of pickles). Drinks were traditionally made from herbs such as Ziziphora clinopodioides and Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl, which are consumed as herbal tea. Some wild edible plants are consumed as snacks, such as dried fruits such as Celtis caucasica Willd. or edible flowers such as Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Schult. & Schult.f. with children primarily collecting and consuming them.

Furthermore, ripe fruits are another food source that is consumed as a seasonal fruit with no special preparation. The fruits are mostly collected from shrublands and forest areas and are mostly consumed raw and fresh, such as Mespilus germanica L. Waldst. Crataegus pentagyna & Kit. ex Willd., Crataegus pseudoheterophylla Pojark, and Pyrus boissieriana Buhse, as well as fruits such as Prunus divaricata Ledeb and Berberis integerrima Bunge, which are used to make jam in addition to eating fresh, or species such as Mespilus germanica, which is used in the making of pickles.

In general, many plants are classified as having multiple uses, with the majority of them having two or more uses. For instance, Urtica dioica serves as an example where the young parts of the plant are used to make Coco sabzi, and the leaves are used to make Kashk.

Method of plant preparation

Locals in the studied area prepare and consume plants in a variety of ways (Fig. 3c). The majority of edible plants, nearly half of the plants (48 species, 39.7% of the species), are cooked. This category includes edible plants such as Suaeda acuminata and Allium grande Lipsky. Cooked plants, such as Eremurus sp. and Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel, can be roasted in oil or boiled in water, such as Anchusa azurea Mill.

The second category includes plants that are dried and used after drying (37 species, 30.6%), such as Elwendia sp. and Mentha longifolia or plants that are dried for storage and consumption in the fall and winter seasons, such as Allium iranicum and Falcaria vulgaris (Fig. 7a, b). The third category includes plants that are consumed raw (16 species, 13.2%), such as Allium paradoxum, and edible species that are used fresh (9.1% species) and without any process, such as Pyrus boissieriana, Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., and Crataegus pseudoheterophylla. Finally, plants that are processed after certain processes (9) species (7.4%) are generally consumed as pickles. Ferula species and Prunus divaricata, for example, as well as Capparis spinosa L. Of course, the plant species mentioned above are not consumed in the same way. A species can be used in a variety of ways.

Fig. 7

a Storage of dried WEPs for use in seasons when fresh plants are not available. b Drying WEPs Mentha longifolia، c Prunus divaricata Source: research findings

Harvest season and plant availability

Most of the WEPs (66.4%) are collected during spring with a pick in May (51 species). Figure 8 shows the harvest calendar of WEPs in the study region. Plant vegetative parts are best collected during April-July, and fruits are collected between September and November. Almost no edible plants are collected or available between December and February. During winter, only dried (Fig. 7) and processed edible plants are used. Edible plants, such as Prunus divaricata, are used both fresh during the collection season and dry during the other seasons (Fig. 7c). Because of the nutritional value and pleasant taste of edible plants, locals have a strong belief in using them all year round. Dried parts of species such as Mentha longifolia, Ziziphora clinopodioides, Ziziphora tenuior L., Tragopogon graminifolius, Allium iranicum, Allium umbilicatum, Suaeda acuminate, Falcaria vulgaris, Elwendia cylindrical, Eremurus sp., Scorzonera meyeri (K.Koch) Lipsch., Achillea wilhelmsii K.Koch, Lepidium draba, Lamium amplexicaule L., Stachys lavandulifolia, Urtica dioica and dried fruits such as Celtis caucasica, Rosa canina L. or fruit juices such as Berberis integerrima and edible seeds such as Elwendia sp., Descurainia sophia or pickles such as Capparis spinosa, Portulaca oleracea L., Mespilus germanica, Ferula sp. are popular during winter.

Fig. 8

Time of collection and distribution of plant use in different months of the year

The habitat of plants

Figure 9 shows collection sites and different vegetation types and habits from which the WEPs were collected. Most of the used species are collected around the villages or areas nearby (37.7% of species), followed by rangelands (33.7%). Because nearly all of the studied areas are hilly and adjacent to rangeland, this has a significant impact on the use of edible plants, particularly in the spring. Both forests and shrublands provide 9.8% of the species that are mainly appreciated for their fruits (Fig. 10). Hilly slopes, mountain areas, roadsides, and graveyards together provide only 9% of WEPs. The details of all habitats and collected species in each habitat are listed in Table 4.

Fig. 9

Habitat of the plants used

Fig. 10

Source: research findings. a Eremurus sp., b Allium paradoxum (M.Bieb.) G. Don, c Suaeda acuminata, d Allium grande, e Lepidium draba, f Gundelia tournefortii L., g Anchusa azurea, h Tragopogon graminifolius, i Urtica dioica, j Capparis spinosa, k Ziziphora tenuior, l Ixiolirion tataricum

Pictures of some wild edible plants in the study area.

Fungus

Although our main focus was on plants, we added one species of hornbill (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm.) to our collection due to the widespread consumption of this species by local people and its collection in the rangelands of the study area (Fig. 11b). This mushroom is important in the food baskets of locals in the preparation of various local dishes, such as soups and spring meals.

Fig. 11

Collection. a Ferula sp. To prepare pickles, b wild edible fungus (Pleurotus ostreatus from the Rangeland of Nagarman village by local people

Quantitative ethnobotanical indices

While all species are valued as food sources, there were ten species with widespread use reports (Table 4). Allium iranicum has been the most reported species (UR = 75) with various uses. This plant is well known and widely consumed among locals. Local people collect A. iranicum for a variety of reasons; all parts of the plant, both cooked and raw, are used in various use categories, followed by Mentha longifolia (UR = 66), Allium umbilicatum (UR = 65), Tragopogon graminifolius (UR = 61), Lepidium draba (UR = 56), Urtica dioica (UR = 52), Falcaria vulgaris (UR = 50), Malva neglecta (UR = 49), Eremurus sp. (UR = 48) and Atriplex micrantha (UR = 43). Mentha longifolia and Tragopogon graminifolius had the highest registered RFC (RFC = 0.65), followed by Falcaria vulgaris (RFC = 0.59), Malva neglecta (RFC = 0.54), Allium umbilicatum and Urtica dioica (RFC = 0.52), Lepidium draba and Rumex sp. (RFC = 0.47), Ziziphora clinopodioides (RFC = 0.45) and Allium iranicum (RFC = 0.43) (Table 4). Allium iranicum had the highest UV, which shows its importance in the local diet. This night be due to its pleasant taste and various uses. Meanwhile, it was the most commonly used ingredient for preparing the Coco sabzi (f = 17). Mentha longifolia showed the second highest UV. This plant is also an important flavoring ingredient in Kashk (f = 17) and Yogurt (f = 15). Other species with high UV were Allium umbilicatum (1.47), Tragopogon graminifolius (1.38), Lepidium draba (1.27), Falcaria vulgaris (1.13), Malva neglecta (1.11), Eremurus sp. (1.09) and Atriplex micrantha (0.97) (Table 5). On the other hand, the lowest number of UVs was found for Vicia tenuifolia Roth (UV = 0.02), Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. (UV = 0.02), Vicia faba L. (UV = 0.04), Ulmus minor Mill. (UV = 0.04), Achillea wilhelmsii (UV = 0.04), Sonchus oleraceus L. (UV = 0.06), Ixiolirion tataricum (UV = 0.06), Allium sp. (UV = 0.06) and Silene conoidea L. (UV = 0.06). Table 5 shows the most important edible species with the highest UVs in the study area.

Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity index (JI)

We compared our results to twelve published papers from neighboring regions of Semnan province using the Jaccard index (Table 6). The estimated values of the Jaccard similarity index, demonstrating the degree of species-related similarity between our study and other studies conducted in nearby locations, JI ranged from 0.84 to 10.63. The highest degree of similarity was found in the study of the An Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Food Plants in Sirjan (Kerman province) [50]. The lowest degree of similarity was found with the study conducted in an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants of Zangelanlo district (Northeast Iran) [47].

Table 6 Comparison between present and previous studies, as performed by Jaccard Index (JI)

Discussion

High diversity of WEPs in the Northeastern region of Iran

This study showed a high diversity of WEPs, with 66 species belonging to 53 genera and 23 families contributing to the local people’s diet. This broad diversity is important in the daily life of local people for a variety of nutritional purposes. These findings are consistent with previous ethnobotanical research highlighting the role of WEPs in ensuring food security [1, 4, 9, 14, 52].

The results of this study revealed that the Rosaceae family had the most species used in the region, with 9 species (Fig. 4 and Table 4). This could be attributed to the abundance of wild fruits in the area, which is consistent with other studies on the use of more edible species from this family [7, 9, 10, 12,13,14, 33, 52, 53]. Following the family Rosaceae, Apiaceae and Lamiaceae had the most species of edible plants, consistent with previous studies [33]. However, some previous studies reported that Compositae [1, 11], Poaceae [8], Asteraceae [23, 35, 54, 55] and Leguminosae [56] were the largest families of edible species. Herbs, with 53 species (79.1%), were the predominant vegetative form in the study area, and these results align with similar studies [3, 7, 8, 12, 14, 32, 53, 56, 57] and in contrast to other researchers with trees [16] as the dominant vegetative form of WEPs.

Lacks of ethnobotanical research on WEPs in Iran

The northeastern region of Iran, especially the Semnan (Shahrood) province, lacks ethnobotanical studies of edible plants despite its diverse habitat. Therefore, this study makes a valuable contribution to the documentation and preservation of local knowledge about wild edible plants in this region. A relatively high number of WEPs were found in the study area, confirming the area’s rich local knowledge and high diversity of wild edible plant species.

Few studies on ethnobotanical knowledge of wild edible plants in Iran have been conducted [40,41,42, 58, 59], and in the majority of cases, the status and availability of plants, the separation of growth habitats, and the collection and classification of plants for nutritional purposes and preparation have not been thoroughly evaluated. On the other hand, there are several publications on this subject from the neighboring countries such as Turkey [24, 32, 33, 55], Iraq [60, 61], and Pakistan [53]. It is worth noting that many edible plants have been used for medicinal purposes in numerous studies. Similarly, in previous studies, species such as Ziziphora clinopodioides and Capparis spinosa have been reported to have high medicinal value [42]. However, in the current study, the interviewees mentioned the species’ food use. As a result, only studies involving specific species that were used solely for nutritional purposes are mentioned in Table 4. Comparing our results with available studies on wild edible plants with low JI showed that our study present novel data about food plants demonstrating low common cultural values and traditional knowledge. There are only few studies related to wild edible plants with details [40, 50, 51] and three studies which focused on medicinal plants in details only noticed if there are edible or not [41, 46, 48], and other studies in nearby locations were only studied medicinal uses [43,44,45,46, 49]. In total, 26 edible species (39.4%) among total 66 species including A. grande, A. umbilicatum, A. retroflexus, A. micrantha, A. virgatum, S. acuminate, E. cylindrica, S. stellata, C. cyanus, S. meyeri, S. oleraceus, A. azurea, C. caucasica, L. stellarioides, S. conoidea, S. media, V. tenuifolia, L. amplexicaule, N. sacharata, P. dubium, P. ostreatus, C. pseudoheterophylla, M. sieversii, P. microcarpa, P. boissieriana, and U. minor were introduced in current studies. Therefore, more attention is needed in ethnobotanical research of WEPs in Iran to document this valuable information, which is directly related to people’s food and health.

Cooked WEPs and local people diet

In this study, we documented a variety of interesting edible plant preparation methods used by locals which half of the plants are cooked. Rice-vegetable preparation (37 species, 268 usage reports, 24.7%) and Coco Sabzi (28 species, 186 reported uses, 17.1%) are the most popular food categories for the use of edible plants followed by soups, herbs stew and yoghurt which confirm the importance of cooked plants. Cooked plants (39.7%) are consumed more frequently than other modes of use, as the majority of consumption categories are rice veg, coco sabzi, soup, and herb stew. This clearly suggests that natives cook edible plants in their diet. These findings are consistent with similar studies [54] and differ from the majority of studies on the use of more plants without special preparation and raw [23, 60, 62, 63] and fresh [16] plants. All mentioned foods are considered as important main food of local people and play important role during times of food scarcity or famine, providing a diverse range of nutritional possibilities.

Young leaves (25%) and young aerial parts (21.4%) were the most commonly used plant parts for nutritional purposes. The fact that the aforementioned organs are the most commonly consumed parts of the plant may be attributed to their widespread use as ingredients in the preparation of herbal rice, herb stew, coco, and raw salad. A diverse range of edible parts collected from various species demonstrates that local communities have gained a wealth of traditional knowledge from the consumption of wild edible plants [8]. Diversity in the use of plant parts has implications for the survival and regeneration of plants as the collection of one specific plant part might affect its regeneration for the next season. However, other ethnobotanical studies have found that the most edible plant parts are tender stems and leaves [8], whole plants [1], tubers [64], leaves [13, 33, 54, 65], leaves and stems [57], fruit and aerial organs [14] and fruits [3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 16, 52, 56]. Fruits are less used in our results, which could be due to a lack of availability or to the local people losing their traditional knowledge of how to use them [1]. We have an edible flower species, Ixiolirion tataricum, in our study. We found that this is consistent with similar results in the nutritional consumption of edible flowers [15, 57]. A fungus species of carp (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm.) is also mentioned in our collection, which is consistent with other studies, in the use of edible fungus in the food basket of local people [15]. The majority of fruits are rich in antioxidants and minerals. Mespilus germanica is rich in natural antioxidants [66]. Amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive components (polyphenols, flavonoids, and triterpenoids) are abundant in many “Crataegus” species [67]. It has a high nutritional value and contains beneficial components such as polyphenols and minerals for Capparis spinosa and Ferula sp. (Figs. 6l and 11a) [68], which have been widely used in native people’s culture for making pickles.

Locals collect edible plants from natural habitats almost every month of the year except for winter. The time needed to collect WEPs is determined by the maturity of the parts used [52]. Meanwhile, harvesting times, seasons, and frequency vary from plant to plant, depending on the availability of the edible plant and its organs [3]. The majority of the plants were collected in the spring (April, May, and June), which is consistent with other studies on the benefit of edible plants with the onset of spring [60], which peaks in May. Because the study area is in arid and semiarid climates, there is a direct relationship between the number of plant species collected and the harvest season. There are more edible plants to collect in the spring because there is more rainfall and more favorable conditions, which decreases over time due to the decrease in rainfall and increasing temperature. This result is consistent with the findings of other studies on the collection of more plants during the monsoon and spring seasons [3]. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with those of [52], who discovered that the majority of edible plants are collected in May. Plants are generally collected from April to July, and fruits are collected from September to November, which is consistent with other studies [10]. However, our findings contradict previous studies in which WEPs were collected from March to October [7, 52], with the highest proportion of species collected in August [7]. Furthermore, our research found that edible species are consumed all year. Due to a lack of fresh edible plants in the autumn and winter months, communities rely on stored food [3], so locals use dried and processed plants such as fruits, with similar results reported by other researchers in fruit drying for winter use [32]. Meanwhile, January had the highest consumption of dried and processed plants, with 23 species. With the arrival of spring, this amount decreased, and the majority of the plants used included fresh plants from a variety of sources.

Most categories of plant-use knowledge are influenced by different variables including gender [69, 70]. Despite the gender imbalance in studies of neighboring countries [33, 55, 60, 71, 72], due to religious and patriarchal family structures, which prioritize males as family heads and resource holders [72], our study of ethnographic knowledge has shown a significant role of women in this field. They actively participate in the collection of wild edible plants, utilization and contribute to the seasonal household economy by using wild edible plants as a supplemental food source. Also, women in the study area, are also responsible for preparing family meals and can get to know more plants through cooking. Gender equality is seen as a goal and a means in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [73].

The top ten UVs reported in the region included two species from the Amaryllidaceae family and eight other species from eight different families. Allium iranicum from the Amaryllidaceae family is widely used as an edible plant, and because of its wide distribution and the presence of nomads in the region, it has been transformed into a species with high UVs, making it the first choice for consumption and collection [74]. Mentha longifolia is significant among locals in different months of the year due to its wide availability and use. The species with the lowest UV were Vicia tenuifolia (UV = 0.02), Lallemantia royleana (UV = 0.02), Vicia faba (UV = 0.045), and Ulmus minor (UV = 0.045). Some lamiaceae species such as Mentha longifolia and Ziziphora clinopodioides and also Tragopogon graminifolius and two Allium species had the highest relative frequency index of quotation (RFC) among the people of the region, indicating their importance, according to the results. Mentha longifolia is significant among locals in different months of the year due to its wide availability and use. Almost all species are mentioned as food sources. Allium iranicum is one of the most frequently mentioned (UR = 75), with nine different food uses. This plant is an important food source for locals, and it is available from May to June. It is consumed in a variety of food categories. This high collection and demand for this plant can put more pressure on. The natural populations of the plants. Because the leaves and areal parts of the plants are collected before the plants can set flowers and seeds, it can affect its regeneration and production of offspring. Majority of the UR species (N = 9) were cooked and dried plants, confirming the continued use of cooked plants for nutritional purposes by local people, which is consistent with the findings of other studies in this area [62].

WEPs conservation and food sovereignty

Study areas are located in mountain habitats with high species diversity. These areas mainly include natural ecosystems which their diversity and function are strongly influenced by ecological and anthropogenic factors. We found that almost all habitats (including villages, rangelands, forests, shady areas, hilly slopes, mountains, roadsides, and graveyards) are used to collect WEPs. Other researchers have reported similar results when collecting plants from various habitats [3, 9, 16]. Access to plant collection sites has a significant impact on plant collection [9, 11]. As a result, the highest number of plants collected in our study area was near villages, which had easier access to edible plants, with 46 species (37.7%), followed by rangelands, which had 41 species (33.7%). As a result, plant collection may be influenced by availability [11]. Simultaneously, studies have shown that the richness of a species increases as altitude decreases. This pattern is primarily influenced by access to places and plant cultural values [9]. As a result of the greater diversity of plant species, lowland areas are more likely to be considered. However, a number of interviewees stated that because of the decrease in local shepherds, nonnative shepherds did not recognize or desire to collect edible plants from high-altitude areas. The majority of these species were found in areas near villages and rangelands, which are heavily influenced by local human activities. Therefore, conservation efforts should prioritize the protection of these wild edible plants. Intensive grazing, especially during drought years, the removal of shrubs for fuel, and the harvesting of species with roots can significantly impact the sustainable harvest and conservation of these plants [75]. Some key WEPs such as Urtica dioica, Allium iranicum, Allium umbilicatum, Tragopogon graminifolius need more attentions because of harvesting by roots in our study area. The ecological significance of wild edible plants lies in their role in ecosystem-based adaptation, their contribution to food security during times of scarcity, and their potential to enhance the nutritional quality of diets, especially in rural areas.

The cultural significance of wild edible plants is evident in how they are used and transformed within local communities. Wild edible plants are not only just eaten, but also incorporated into traditional dishes that have been adapted to meet evolving cultural influences and tourism needs. For instance, Tragopogon graminifolius has been noted for a long time because of the tendency to prepare the local food “Shengy Pelo” (Fig. 6a), which has been accepted in the national heritage of Iran from Semnan province (N. 2097) due to its long history of preparing and cooking as an intangible work of Shahrood city.

Wild edible plants could become preferred food crops in the future, having adapted to changing climates. They are important to local communities for creating livelihood security and ensuring food and nutrition sovereignty. We need to recognize their potential in ensuring a resilient food system and explore their integration while maintaining their natural habitats and responsible harvesting practices [76]. Wild edible plants are a great resource that can considerably help to food sovereignty, especially in areas where traditional food supplies are scarce [77]. These plants can supplement diets during times of food scarcity or famine, providing a diverse range of nutritional possibilities [78, 79]. The Shahrood communities in Northeast of Iran have incorporated the eating, preservation, and management of wild edible plants into their cultural practices, demonstrating the value of traditional knowledge in sustainable food systems.

The usage of wild edible plants not only diversifies diets, but also empowers communities to control their own food supplies, enabling resilience in the face of food shortages [80, 81]. The incorporation of wild edible plants into local diets allows communities to keep their traditional meals while producing or harvesting them at their convenience, harmonizing with the concepts of food sovereignty, which states that communities have the authority to pick and access their preferred foods [76, 82].

In essence, including wild edible plants into diets helps to promote food sovereignty by providing nutritional security to communities, preserving cultural heritage, and increasing resistance to food insecurity concerns [83]. This use of wild edible plants stresses the importance of traditional knowledge and practices in promoting sustainable food systems and guaranteeing food security at the community level.

Conclusion

The study is the first investigation of WEPs in Shahrood and among a few comprehensive studies of WEPs in Iran, revealing indigenous knowledge of local peoples in the use of wild edible plants. However, valuable knowledge that has been passed down verbally from generation to generation is being lost among the younger generation, emphasizing the need for documentation. WEPs in this region showed a wide range of variation, not only in the number of species, but also in different categories of consumption and different parts of the plant used for nutritional purposes. The local people’s WEPs collection calendar demonstrates valuable indigenous knowledge rooted in their rich culture of edible plant utilization. WEPs usage values were calculated, documenting the species with the highest utilization value, which can contribute significantly to the preservation of nutritious food. According to the index URs of species, A. iranicum, M. longifolia, A. umbilicatum, T. graminifolius, L. draba, U. dioica, F. vulgaris, M. neglecta and Eremurus sp.) constituted a considerable portion of the plants used by locals. Nonetheless, these species are facing growing threats, emphasizing the urgency of implementing stronger protection measures and adopting sustainable management practices. Notably, our study sheds light on how collaborative activities in rural settings are especially important for women.