Research was coordinated by and supported in large part by the staff at the Missouri Botanical Garden Mahabo-Mananivo Conservation research site. Field research was conducted over a period of five months (January – May) in 2010 with three field trips to the community. A ten day preliminary exploration was used to become familiar with the community and introduce ourselves, make contact with local officials and present the topic of our research. A hired local guide acted as our translator, introduced us to interview prospects and coordinated interview schedules. Consent was given by the tribal leaders, local government officials and by each individual we interviewed.
Study site
Agnalazaha Forest is located within the district of Farafangana, Atsimo Atsinanana region in southeastern Madagascar, in the Commune Rural Mahabo-Mananivo (Figure 1). The National Road 12, a paved highway connecting Farafangana and Vangaindrano borders the forest to the west while the Indian Ocean borders it to the east. It is between 47° 41′and 47° 45′ E, and 23° 09′and 23° 14′ S with an altitude of less than 50 m [14]. In 2003, it was measured that this coastal forest covered an area of 1,565 ha and represents approximately 17% land coverage of the rural area of the commune Mahabo-Mananivo. Agnalazaha Forest has the status of Forest Reserve under article number 129-SF/EF/CG since May 17, 1954, but has been under the management of the Missouri Botanical Garden (MBG) since 2002.
The southeast region of Madagascar is characterized as the eastern coastal plain and has a climate of high rainfall and high average temperature [17]. The Agnalazaha Forest experiences two seasons: the hot rainy season from December to April, and the cool season from May to November. The average annual rainfall in Agnalazaha Forest is 2,706 mm. The average annual temperature varies between 21°C - 24°C (69 °F – 75 °F). According to the bioclimatic division of Madagascar, this region belongs to the humid tropics and part of the humid warm bioclimatic type [18]. Agnalazaha Forest is classifed as a littoral forest, characterized by an open canopy and sandy soils [12], seasonally flooded wooded swamps, open marshes with Nepenthes madagascariensis and Lepironia articulata, savannas, remnants of secondary forest on lateritic soils and reforestation forests of Eucalyptus robusta and Acacia mangeum. There are 275 species of plants in Agnalazaha Forest [14] distributed within 188 genera and 82 families. The site contains species belonging to three endemic families, Asteropeiaceae (2 species), Sarcolaenaceae (6 species) and Sphaerosepalaceae (1 species). Furthermore, 199 species present in Agnalazaha Forest are determined to be endemic to Madagascar (72.3%).
An inventory of primates [19] conducted in Agnalazaha Forest identified four species of lemur all of which are considered to at least be threatened, including the critically endangered Eulemur albocollaris[20]. All are known to be hunted locally. A similar study identified seven species of endemic small mammals found in Agnalazaha Forest including Pteropus rufus, Hemicentetes semispinosus, Setifer setosus and Tenrec caudatus, Hova oryzorictes, all of which are also locally hunted [21].
Surrounding community
Commune Rural Mahabo-Mananivo surrounds Agnalazaha Forest to the west, north and south. There are 6,998 residents according to the 2009 census. Mahabo-Mananivo is primarily comprised of residents identifying with the Antesaka ethnic group, while Antefasy, Merina and Betsileo members have migrated to this area as well. The municipality of Mahabo-Mananivo consists of ten fokontany surrounding the Agnalazaha Forest; Mahabo, Vohimasy, Iabotako, Nosiala, Iambomary, Baboaka, Lohagisy, Karimbelo, Rorobe, and Agnateza. A “fokontany” is the smallest political distinction recognized by the government. It may compromise several small villages with an average 1,000 people [22]. Mahabo-Manaivo is primarily an agriculture economy. Approximately 99.74% of the population is farmers. Rice fields dominate the landscape with cassava, yams, and manihot as supplementary crops. Additional income is sought through handicraft production, largely basketry weaving. The most popular species used for basketry is Lepironia articulate, Cyperus sp, and Pandanus sp. Monthly income is less than 80,000 Ariary (approximately USD$35) for a majority of the population of Mahabo-Mananivo.
There is a relatively new community health center, built in 2009, in the fokontany Mahabo, located on Road 12. It has 2 rooms and accommodates one doctor and one nurse. However, a majority of the population of Mahabo-Mananivo relies on medicinal plants to cure common diseases. To this end, local people consult traditional healers called ombiasy to be treated with medicinal plants. Ombiasy can be distinguished into four different types of healers: tromba (spiritually possesed) healers, midwives, massage healers and premonition healers.
Ethnobotanical surveys
The Agnalazaha Forest provides the local population with firewood, timber for home construction, non-timber products and medicinal plants. In order to identify medicinal plants known to be used by and for women in the rural commune of Mahabo-Mananivo, inquiries on the therapeutic use of plants were conducted primarily with women and female healers, although some men were interviewed as well. Due to time limitations, not all fokontany were included in the study. Fokontany were selected using the following criteria: (a) proximity to Agnalazaha Forest (b) Distance to the health center located in Mahabo (c) presence of female healers in the village. Fokontany closest to Agnalazaha Forest were given priority. Field visits to each fokontany selected were scheduled so that the villages furthest from the forest were visited first. The interviews were structured as semi-direct interviews with open questions [23]. The interviews were conducted with both individuals and in group settings [24]. Interview questions were written with two different approaches, inquiry of plant specific use or through disease-specific and/or symptomatic description plant use. Questionnaires or survey forms were established, first on medicinal plants used by women and healers, then the socio-economic and cultural value for each species (Additional file 1).
Surveys focused on plants used in the treatment of common female diseases in the commune. They were conducted with traditional healers (ombiasy), birth attendants, women and men who know the medicinal plants used by and for women. The interviews were interspersed with forest walks with interview participants where species were identified by their vernacular names and photos were taken. Herbarium voucher were made and the identification of these species was then conducted in the national herbarium of Tsimbazaza (TAN).