In Italy, ethnobotanical studies are largely carried out in inland areas, since researchers usually presume that ethnobotanical knowledge is better preserved in these areas. Conversely, coastal areas are often neglected, as they are more densely urbanized. As a result, relatively few data on traditional uses of plants for fishery activities are available [27]. Fishing is also practiced in mountainous regions (lakes, rivers), but the techniques and plants used are different from marine fishery: for example the use of icthyotoxic plants for illegal fishing is frequently reported in fresh water basins, while it is rare in coastal areas [28].
All of the informants in our field research were men, since fishery and many fishery related activities are generally a male prerogative as in other parts of the world [6, 14, 15]. Some activities, such as the sewing of nets, are mainly the duty of women (Marina di Montalto, Aurunci [29]), Amalfi Coast, Aspra), and therefore the contribution of women in this activity was only related to us by these male informants. However, the sewing of nets is also a prerogative of elders (men and women) in various localities of Liguria and in Civitavecchia (Latium).
The wood of many tree species is used by shipwrights, and it is interesting to note that the number of species used for this purpose in the Western Mediterranean coastal regions of Italy is higher than in other parts of the world (e.g., [6, 14, 15, 30]). The use of some species dates back to the period of the Roman Empire, such as the wood of Quercus ilex L. and Quercus robur L. or several coniferous species (especially pines) for building the hulls of ships [31]. The coastal habitat of some pines explains why in the past they were not only consecrated to Cybele, the divinity of fertility in Greco-Roman mythology (for the many seeds in their cones), but also to Poseidon, the god of the Sea [32].
Ligurian informants reported a method, named “garibo” in Savona, consisting of bending trees during growth by a weight fixed to the tip (e.g., Pinus pinea L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., etc.) to obtain boards for boat building (interviews; [33]). This practice has been reported in other Italian areas, but, to the best of our knowledge, not in other countries.
Species used for weaving ropes are generally the same in all the localities covered by our research. However, informants reported that certain native species (e.g., Ampelodesmos mauritanicus) have been replaced by exotic ones (e.g., Cocos nucifera L.) or by plastic materials (e.g., nylon). It is worth mentioning that Cocos nucifera is also used for weaving ropes in the Pacific [14]: its use in Italy may be both derived or a case of convergence.
With regards to Ampelodesmos mauritanicus, both informants and bibliographic sources [34–36] reported that this plant was also commercially important in the past, while today it is no longer used. This is probably due to the labor intensive process needed to make use of this plant. Leaves need to be dried, pounded, and macerated overnight, then pounded again and finally woven. As a result of this process the robust nature of the fibers are retained. Some species are chosen for different purposes, as for example in some Ligurian localities the fibers of Cocos nucifera are retained to attract fish such as the goldline (Sarpa salpa), probably because it eats algae that grow on these fibers. Another example given by some informants from Civitavecchia is that in the past, nets were made with cotton or hemp, and this fact was economically positive since worn out nets could then be sold to ragmen. Conversely, modern nylon is categorized as special waste and fishermen have to pay for its disposal.
Baskets, cages and fish traps using plant fibers are made from a relatively small number of plants, as in other regions in the world (e.g., [14]). This could be due to specific features the plants need to bear, or to the fact that these practices are steadily fading. Indeed, low-cost materials coming from Asian countries are now replacing traditional woven products [35, 37]. On the other hand, fish traps, now made from plastic or metal materials, are more easily folded (Santa Marinella). Also, according to our informants, these modern products last longer (Santa Marinella, Civitavecchia), even if they are less effective (Amalfi Coast).
Despite a variability in the common names of plants (not reported here) in different dialects, the names of some artifacts are very similar. For example, the baskets made of chestnut fibers used for carrying fish are called “cofone” or “cofuìn” in Liguria and “coffe” in Campania. The cage (made of different plant species) used to keep fish alive is called “maruffo” in Ischia (Campania) [37] and “maruffu” in Sardinia [38]. The dye obtained by a decoction of Pinus bark was indicated as “zappino” or “zappinu” by informants from Liguria, and the same name occurred in Sardinia [38], Campania [27, 37] and Sicily (interviews; [39]). This could be related to the ancient cultural connections among these regions showing that these uses are part of a shared cultural background. Conversely, in the Pacific it is retained that different plant names suggest the plants have been there for a long time, while having names of products and technologies in common suggest that these are relatively new and shared among practitioners in different islands. However, the historical and cultural backgrounds of countries of the Mediterranean are completely different from those of the Pacific.
The plants being used are essentially trees or bushes, growing mainly in the Mediterranean belt, likely because these plants are easier to stock up on. Some uses require a specific species while, for others, a species may be replaced by another. However, some species are specifically chosen: all the species of the temperate belt are used for shipbuilding, probably because the wood of the trees growing in this habitat has features that fit better for specific uses in shipbuilding [several species are selectively used for specific parts of the boat (e.g., Pinus species are only used for the hull) and a similar selectivity has been also reported in [14]]. This probably justifies the higher costs and labor involved in obtaining this resource. Natural habitats are the preferred place for gathering ethnobotanical species, especially Mediterranean woodland, maquis and garigues. Finally, it has been highlighted that changes in the gathering of certain species have modified the natural environment. For example, in Camogli (Liguria) the abandonment of the practices connected to the gathering of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus, adapted to a low frequency and medium intensity of fires, has led to an increase of this species, while in the Aurunci area (Latium), the same fact has caused an increase in fire hazard [35]. The higher number of fires is probably due to a reduction in maintenance of the resource and to a prevailing activity of shepherds who often start fires for obtaining new grass.
There is not an absolute and unilateral selection criterion for gathering plants: the correlations between use categories and the different considered variables seem to vary. In some cases the statistical analyses confirm and/or support ethnobotanical observations and ecological explanations, while in other cases, results are limited by data availability (which is a common problem in ethnobotanical research, especially for uses that are disappearing).
In some cases plants need to have certain specific physical features, a fact that has also been observed in other countries (e.g., [15, 40]) like being woody for ship building and thus, these species are even gathered rather far from inland (e.g., in temperate woodland). In other cases, different plants can be used for the same purpose, and so there is no strong relation between a use and a certain variable (at least the ones that we analyzed). In other cases, the connection can be explained by the presence of certain compounds in the species like the use of several Pinus species (tannins) for “Dyeing of fish nets”.
The regions that share the higher number of uses are Liguria and Campania, but this may be explained by the fact that we were able to conduct a higher number of interviews in these regions. However, many uses are also shared between Campania and Sicily, and between Liguria and Sardinia. This may be the result of historical connections and reciprocal commercial activities in the past. Moreover, several regions are linked to a specific usage category, this is probably due to the fact that in some regions (e.g., Lucania and Calabria) available data were limited but also to other various factors: for example barrels are mainly made in Sicily for the practice of preserving fish under salt, which is much appreciated and consumed by local people.
According to our informants, fishing activity is in reduction, while the local production of traditional artifacts is even rarer (Figure 6). Artisanal fishery is decreasing in the studied areas and according to our informants this reduction might depend on different causes: too many fishing vessels within the limit of 20 miles off the coast (Civitavecchia, Palermo), legal restrictions (Civitavecchia, Palermo), decline in fish stocks (Marina di Montalto, S. Marinella, Civitavecchia, Palermo), changes in fish species (Marina di Montalto, S. Marinella), climatic changes (specifically: different seasonality) (S. Marinella), dolphin predation (Aspra, Palermo), increases in cost (Civitavecchia, Palermo). Traditional handicrafts, practices and strategies are disappearing even faster, with the majority of plant uses having already been abandoned. Finally, the fact that these uses are disappearing makes it difficult to assess whether a specific use is unique to a certain area or if it has already disappeared in other areas.