Skip to main content
Download PDF
Download ePub

Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the rural communities of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume 15, Article number: 45 (2019) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Being an isolated locality and having a tough mountainous terrain, strong ethnomedicinal practices still prevail in Dhirkot and its allied areas, which have been rarely explored yet. The present study was intended with the aim to document and compare the traditional knowledge of local communities on botanical taxa of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu, and Kashmir.

Methodology

Ethnomedicinal data were collected from 74 informants using a semi-structured questionnaire in addition to field observation and group discussion. Various indices were also used to evaluate the ethnomedicinal data. Furthermore, the present findings were compared with previous reports to assess data novelty.

Result

A total of 140 medicinal plant species belonging to 55 families were recorded, which are used by local communities to treat 12 disease categories. Asteraceae was dominating with 20 species, followed by Poaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae (14, 11, and 10 species, respectively). Herbs were leading with 66% contribution, whereas leaves were the most utilized plant part with 29% utilization and decoction was the common mode of administration. Viola canescens depicted the highest use value and relative frequency of citation (1.7 and 0.92, respectively). Maximum informant consensus factor (0.88) was calculated for digestive and liver disorders. Five plant species including Berberis lycium Mentha arvensis Pyrus malus, Taraxacum officinale, and Viola canescens had 100% fidelity level.

Conclusion

Dhirkot and its allied areas harbor rich botanical and cultural diversity because of its unique geography and diverse climatic conditions. However, mostly, traditional ethnobotanical knowledge is restricted to healers, midwives, and older people, and could be extinct in the near future. Therefore, such documentation not only conserves traditional knowledge but may also contribute significantly to novel drug resources.

Background

Medicinal plants are an important element of aboriginal curative systems. This knowledge is considered as a part of cultural assets [1] However, many indigenous groups fail to sustain and preserve this communal knowledge [2] that is why the systematic evaluation of this knowledge in order to contribute to health care in marginalized areas has been sighted in programs of national and international organizations [3]. In developing countries, most of the local communities are still relying on plant-based medicines [4]. The use of medicinal plants is a valuable source of income for poor communities but knowledge on therapeutic plants is decreasing gradually due to the progression in the present health care system and rapid urbanization [5, 6]. Therefore, such rich tradition should be preserved through a reliable approach before it gets lost due to various anthropogenic and other causes.

There is an amazing growing interest in the alternative systems of therapeutics on a global level [7]. The factors contributing towards the potential use of herbal drugs in developing countries are accessibility, affordability, and historical and cultural background besides a holistic approach to health problems, safety, lack of adverse reaction, and side effects [8, 9]. The use of plants as medicine ranges from 4 to 20% in different countries and about 2500 species are traded internationally. Pakistan has about 6000 species of higher plants, and among them, 10–30% of the flora is used for medicinal purposes in various areas [10, 11]. The tradition of using medicinal plants in Pakistan for the treatment of various ailments is very mature, based predominantly on the Unani system of medicine. This traditional medicine sector has become an important source of health care, especially in rural and tribal areas of the country where it is considered as first-line treatment [12].

Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K) is characterized by its diverse habitats, climate, and soil [13,14,15,16]. It is located in North-East of Pakistan and is stuffed with natural resources particularly plant flora [17]. AJK has a wide range of mountainous ecosystems which are affluent in fauna and flora. Due to extraordinary climatic conditions, the area has three vegetation groups (deserts, alpine, and grasslands). Natural and anthropogenic stresses have a great effect on the natural environment and ecosystems of the area [18]. Previously, different researchers reported ethnomedicinal uses of plant species from other parts of AJ&K [16, 19, 20]. However, the present research area is rarely reported except in one study, which was conducted about 16 years ago [21]. We hypothesize that older people are more familiar with ethnomedicinal uses of plant species compared to younger people and formal education is not predictive of the traditional knowledge level of indigenous people. Moreover, among the local communities, having the same culture usage or importance of a plant species may vary. Therefore, the present study was designed to document the traditional knowledge of plant species and its quantitative assessment and to associate the frequency of occurrence with ethnomedicinal uses of plant species.

Materials and methods

Study area

Dhirkot is a diversity-rich mountainous area of district Bagh, Azad Jammu, & Kashmir, Pakistan. It is situated 55 km southeast of Muzaffarabad (the capital city for Azad Jammu and Kashmir) and 132 km from Islamabad. It is located on latitude 33° 57′ N and longitude 73° 36′ E (Fig. 1), covering an area of 150 km square with an altitudinal variation of 850–2200 m [22]. The climate of the study area is of a subtropical humid and moist temperate type with maximum precipitation occurring in July (95 mm) followed by August (89 mm). The weather remains pleasant in summer due to its location at high altitude. The hottest months are June and July with an average temperature of 24 °C and 23 °C respectively. Sometimes, the temperature rises to 29 °C. The coldest months are January and February with an average temperature of 5.3 °C and 6.6 °C respectively. Sometimes, the temperature falls to 1.1 °C, and at higher elevation, snowfall occurs (Fig. 2). The vegetation of the study area is subtropical humid and moist temperate type. The dominant tree species are Pinus roxburghii (Chir Pine) and P. wallichiana (Blue Pine). Due to the cool and humid condition, the vegetation is comprised of a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and trees. The ground flora is composed of a number of angiosperms along with mosses and ferns.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Map of the study area

Full size image
Fig. 2
figure 2

Precipitation and temperature data of the study area for the year 2017

Full size image

The region embraced a diverse ethnic composition including Abbasi, Sudhans, Rajputs, and Gardazi. Among them, Abassi and Gardazi are the largest and well-settled tribes in the area. The whole population is Muslim. The majority of the population speaks the Hindko language, while Gojri and Urdu are also spoken. The major proportion of the indigenous community has very limited income sources. Majority of people are farmers, some people are job holders, some are labor, and few have their own business on a small scale. People also keep animals at their homes for livelihood. Few public health dispensaries are providing basic health facilities but people living at higher altitudes have limited access to them. They mainly depend on herbal remedies prepared at home or by traditional healers for primary health care.

Sampling and plant identification

Several field trips were made in four different seasons (from August 2017–July 2018) following the method as reported previously [23]. Each medicinal plant species was collected in triplicates from different localities during guided tours. The specimens were properly dried, pressed, and mounted on standard herbarium sheets and voucher specimens were prepared following Jain and Rao’s methods [24]. Flora of Pakistan (https://www.eflora.com) [25, 26] was used for identification. For the correct family names, the APG IV (2016) [27] was followed, while for the accurate scientific name, ‘The Plant List (2013) [28] was used. The identified specimens were further confirmed in the AJ&K Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Herbarium PARC, Pakistan. The fully identified voucher specimens were then deposited in the herbarium of the Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh.

Data collection and analysis

Ethnomedicinal data were gathered from 74 informants including male (55%) and female (45%) using semi-structured interviews, questionnaire, group discussion, and field observation. The informants were selected on a random basis via convenience sampling and sample size was determined by Kadam and Bhalerao’s method [29]. For the preparation of the questionnaire Edward et al. method was used [30]. And ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/) were strictly followed. In this regard, ethical approval was taken from the ethical committee of the Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir before starting surveys, while legal permission for conducting the survey was also taken from the representative of the municipality. Prior consent was taken from all the respondents following the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach as mentioned in the Kyoto Protocol after explaining the possible objective consequences of the study in the local language. Informants were not subjected to any clinical trial. Informants were classified into different categories like age, education level, and professions. The correctness of the ethnobotanical data was checked through triangulation. The data was then compared with the existing literature and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Ethnobotanical indices

For quantitative analysis various quantitative indices were applied including;

Relative frequency citation

The frequency of citation (FC) was used to identify the most used plant species by the local inhabitants of the area. It was calculated by following Tardio and Pardo-de Santayana [5] and Vitalini et al. [31], using the following formula:

$$ \mathrm{RFC}=\frac{\mathrm{FC}}{\mathrm{N}} $$

where FC is respondents citing the use of specific species and N are the total respondents.

Use value

The relative importance of particular plant species cited by all informants in a given area is quantitatively measured in terms of the use value. It was calculated by following Savikin et al. [32] using the following formula:

$$ \mathrm{UV}=\frac{\sum \mathrm{Ui}}{N} $$

where Ui is the number of citations or used reports by each respondent for a particular plant species and N is the total respondents.

Informant consensus factor

The consensus between respondents and particular plant species used for each diseased category was tested by using informant consensus factor. It was figured out by following Vitalini et al., [5] using given formula:

$$ \mathrm{A}.\mathrm{ICF}=\frac{\mathrm{Nur}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Nt}}{\left(\mathrm{Nt}\hbox{-} 1\right)} $$

where ‘Nur’ represents the total number of used reports in each group of diseases, and ‘Nt’ represents the total species cited by all the informants for that group of ailments.

Jaccard index

The similarity of indigenous knowledge among different communities was determined by using the Jaccard index (JI). It was calculated by following Gonzalez-Tejero et al. [33] using the given formula:

$$ \mathrm{JI}=\frac{\mathrm{C}\times 100}{\left(\mathrm{a}+\mathrm{b}\right)\hbox{-} \mathrm{c}} $$

where a is the species of the study area, b is the species recorded from the allied area, and c is the common species in both areas.

Relative importance

Relative importance (RI) was figured out by following Khan et al. [34] using the given formula.

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}\mathrm{RI}=\left(\mathit{\operatorname{Re}} lPH+\mathit{\operatorname{Re}} lBS\right)\times \frac{100}{2}\\ {}\operatorname{Re}1\mathrm{PH}=\frac{PH\; of\;a\; givn\kern0.17em plant}{Maximum\; PH\; of\; all\; reported\kern0.17em plant\kern0.17em species}\end{array}} $$

where PH is the pharmacological attribute of the selected plants and Rel PH is the relative number of pharmacological properties attributed to individual plant species.

$$ \operatorname{Re}1\mathrm{BS}=\frac{BS\; of\;a\; given\kern0.17em plant\;}{Maximum\; BS\; of\; all\; reported\kern0.17em plant\kern0.17em species} $$

BS is the number of body systems healed up by using single species and Rel BS is the relative number of body systems healed up by using a single species.

Fidelity level

The fidelity level (FL) index was used to determine the most preferred species used to cure a particular disease as to treat the same ailment category with more than one plant species is also used. It was figured out after Friedman et al. [35], using the given formula:

$$ \mathrm{FL}=\frac{Np}{N}\times 100 $$

where Np is the number of respondents citing the use of species for a particular ailment and N is the total number of respondents citing the plants for any illness.

Results and discussion

Medicinal plants use and knowledge variation

The data on medicinal uses of plants was collected from 12 villages. Detail demographic data is given in Table 1. The females usually avoid participating and sharing knowledge with male interviewee due to communal restriction and Islamic instruction, which is also mentioned in other studies [36,37,38]. However, the women hold a wider competence regarding the traditional herbal recipes (5.36% species; 8.68% uses). A similar trend was also observed in other studies from Pakistan and abroad [39,40,41]. The older people (age ≤ 60) have more knowledge (6.46% species; 10.82% uses), followed by middle-aged people (age ≤ 40) (6.34% species; 9.50% uses) in comparison to adolescent informants (age ≤ 19) while it is inversely proportional to the level of education (Table 1). This might be the consequence of modernization and weak beliefs of young people regarding traditional remedies and due to changing lifestyles, development in modern medication, and urbanization [42, 43]. Similar findings are reported from other areas of Pakistan [44, 45] and elsewhere [46,47,48]. Illiterate native people are more accustomed to the usage of ethnomedicinal plants than literate people. The reason behind this is that educated people have very less interest in learning and practicing ethnobotanical knowledge. The same result was documented by other researchers in Pakistan [20, 49,50,51] and abroad [52, 53].

Table 1 Demographic information of the Informants
Full size table

Local health care system

Throughout history, the role of traditional health practitioners (THPs) and midwives varies with time and culture, but even today, they are contributing significantly to the primary health care system, particularly among marginalized communities. THPs are usually aged males that use plants, animals, and minerals to treat various health disorders, whereas midwives are the elders and experienced females, which are familiar with pregnancy issues of women and treat them using diverse medicinal plants. Midwives are the integral component of a community that perform their important duties and provide essential support to women during delivery [54, 55]. Data given in Table 1 revealed that most of the information on ethnomedicinal uses of plant species of the study area were shared by (THPs), and midwives. The average number of species reported by THPs and midwives was 21.5 and 12.4, while they reported about 10.4% and 7.36% uses in respective order. Most of the traditional health practitioners were males who possess extensive information about therapeutic herbs and natural treatments which they use in herbal and other remedial preparations to cure diseases [56, 57]. However, as reported previously, traditional knowledge of plant resource utilization is declining due to changing lifestyle and more dependence on allopathic medicines [20, 51, 58, 59]. And similar trends were noted in the study areas.

Diversity of ethnomedicinal flora

A total of 140 species belonging to 55 families and 93 genera were reported (Table 2). Most of the documented ethnomedicinal plants species were herbs (66%) followed by shrubs (16%), trees (14%), and climbers (4%), (Fig. 3). This is because the study area is located in a dense forest zone at higher altitude where the herbs are abundantly distributed with few trees and shrubs. The bimodal rainfall and high availability of moisture might also be the reason. These findings are consistent with other studies [62,63,64,65, 69, 75, 76]. Among 22 families representing 2–20 plant species (Fig. 4), Asteraceae was the dominant family with 14.29% contribution of the total reported taxa, followed by Poaceae (10%), Lamiaceae (7.86%), Rosaceae (7.14%), Fabaceae (4.29%), and Pteridaceae (3.57%). All other families contributed less than 5% with percentages varying from 0.71–2.86%. The dominance of Asteraceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae might be due to suitable habitat, favorable environmental conditions for the growth of the species belonging to these families, and more interactions of local communities with them in the study area. Therefore, traditional uses of plant species of these species are well recognized by the local inhabitants [6, 36, 66, 77, 78]. Additionally, majority of plant species belonging to the abovementioned families contain a variety of secondary metabolites and possess significant bioactivities, pharmacological, and organoleptic properties [79]. Floristic distribution of plant species in different families was analogues to previous reports from Pakistan and around the world [20, 36, 37, 74, 80,81,82].

Table 2 Medicinal uses of the reported taxa and their comparison with previous reports
Full size table
Fig. 3
figure 3

Life form distribution pattern of the reported plant species in the study area

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

Top ranked families with number of species

Full size image

Plant part(s) used

Data presented in Fig. 5 revealed that local inhabitants of the study area use 15 different parts of plants in making recipes to treat various diseases. Among these, leaves were the most abundantly utilized plant parts with percentage contribution of 29%, followed by whole plants (21%) and root (13%), fruit (8%), seed (6%), and flowers (5%) contribution, whereas the use of aerial parts, bark, branches, stem, and latex etc. were less than 5%. Abundant availability and easy collection or harvesting of leaves make them highly utilized plant parts [4, 61, 72, 83]. Moreover, leaves also contain a high concentration of health-beneficial secondary metabolites, phytochemicals, and essential oils, which contribute significantly to phytotherapy or treatment of various health disorders [15, 75, 84]. Likewise, roots are storage parts of plant species also rich in bioactive constituents compared to other parts [4, 85, 86], which therefore possess more health-beneficial properties if collected in the proper time. However, previous studies revealed that majority of the researchers supported the use of leaves than roots, because eradication of roots may lead to serious conservation threats to various plant species particularly those which are highly utilized [60, 87, 88]. Moreover, it is not an easy job to collect the roots of woody and deep-rooted plants [39]. The frequent utilization of the whole plant in preparation of herbal remedies confirmed the abundant utilization of herbs in the investigated area as the whole plant can be used only in the case of herbs.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Plant parts used in herbal recipes

Full size image

Herbal preparation and administration

Decoction was the widespread used method in the study area for herbal preparation with percentage contribution of 19%, followed by extract, powder, and juice used in 18, 12, and 11% preparations of traditional recipes, respectively (Fig. 6). The frequent use of decoction had also been reported previously [36, 39, 53, 73, 81, 89, 90]. This confirms that making decoction is a very simple and easy way used for herbal preparation with more health benefits [91]. In decoction form, the efficacy of herbal remedies increases due to the maximum extraction of health-beneficial secondary metabolites and other bioactive compounds, which is accelerated on heating [92]. Taste of medicines can be adjusted by adding honey or sugar to make it more pleasant [39, 93]. Inhabitants of the study area use 63% of the herbal preparations as oral intake, whereas rest 37% were applied topically. These results were analogous to previous reports [36, 67, 68, 72, 94, 95]. Poultice, rubbing, and paste were common topical methods as reported in previous studies [51, 96]. In oral mode of administration, plant materials were mainly ingested as a decoction or in powder form with water, milk, or honey. These results are analogous to the previous findings [49, 97]. Oral intake of herbal preparation is usually effective for the treatment of internal diseases, while for external diseases, i.e., skin infections, joint pain, hemorrhoid, and stings, were treated by topical application of the drug. These observations were in agreement with previous reports [98].

Fig. 6
figure 6

Methods of preparation of herbal recipes

Full size image

Informant consensus factor

Different diseases reported from Dhirkot were classified into 16 categories to develop the consensus of informants on medicinal plants following WHO’s international categorization of ailments [99]. As mentioned in Fig. 7, informant consensus factor (ICF) values ranged from 0.64 to 0.88 with the highest level of 0.88 for gastrointestinal disorders and liver diseases. Prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders is mainly attributed to poor hygiene conditions, inadequate supply of pure drinking water, and consumption of contaminated food [100, 101]. Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Mentha arvensis, Mentha longifolia, Viola canescens, Vitis jacquemontii, and Zanthoxylum alatum were among the most frequently utilized plant species to treat digestive system and liver diseases in the study area. Likewise, more consumption of a high-calorie fatty diet in the local communities and changing lifestyle could be the possible reasons of liver diseases in the study area. Our data revealed that around 90 plant species with 743 used reports were used to treat liver disorders. The plant species used to treat digestive and liver diseases have been reported as a rich source of flavonoids, toxol, vitamins, and essential oils along with other bioactive phytochemicals [102, 103]. Additionally, inhabitants of the study area have traditional knowledge due to more interaction with these plant species, particularly used to treat digestive and liver disorders. Comparative assessment with previous studies exposed that many workers have also reported the highest ICF for digestive problems [61, 70, 71, 81, 104, 105].

Fig. 7
figure 7

Informant consensus factor of diseases with the use reports and the total number of species used. Ntax, total species used by all the informants for a group of ailment; Nur, total number of use reports in each group of disease; ICF, informant consensus factor; MTI mouth-throat infections; EEI, eye and ear infections; DB, diabetes; RD, respiratory disorders; MID, muscular and Joint disorders; DSLD, digestive system and Liver diseases; SD, skin diseases; CSD, circulatory system diseases; URD, urinary and reproductive diseases; F, fever; C, cancer; HP, hair problems; NSD, nervous system disorders; BLSD, blood and lymphatic system diseases; AD, antidote; O, others

Full size image

The second highest ICF value viz. 0.84 was calculated for respiratory tract and throat diseases. Different factors such as sudden changes in weather, poor hygiene conditions, a high proportion of cold, moisture, germs, and spores may cause abnormalities in the respiratory track [51, 81]. Swertia cordata, Trifolium pretense, Viola canescens, Elaeagnus umbellate, and Achyranthes aspera were among the commonly utilized plant species for the treatment of respiratory infections. In our study, the high ICF value for skin disease might be due to the fact that local inhabitants residing in mountains at a higher altitude are more exposed to UV radiations along with other pathogenic attacks that may lead to chronic skin diseases and infections [106,107,108]. The most common species used to treat skin diseases were Adiantum caudatum, Ajuga bracteosa, Achillea millefolium, Berberis lycium, Cedrus deodara, Cynodon dactylon, Daphne papyracea, Debregeasia salicifolia, Ficus carica, Ficus palmate, and Gerbera gossypina.

Muscular and joint diseases are also common in the study area, which might be due to stress, minor injuries, and unhealthy food. Inhabitants of the study area use Ricinus communis, Rubia cordifolia, Salix nigra, Sarcococca saligna, and Sigesbeckia orientalis to treat joint and muscular problems. Urinary and reproductive system diseases are also common due to the unawareness and excessive use of medications. Moreover, abnormality in hormonal production, malnutrition, and environmental factor may cause reproductive disorders. The inhabitants of the study area use Saccharum spontaneum, Sarcococca saligna, Sorghum halepense, Trifolium pretense, Wikstroemia canescens, Eriophorum comosum to treat reproductive disorders. The lowest ICF value was calculated for hair problems (0.64) and 9 species including Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Melia azadarach, Olea ferruginea, and Ricinus communis were used to treat this disease with 23 use reports.

Relative importance

RI of plant species is a useful parameter to measure their adaptability. Data presented in Table 3, indicates that RI values of the reported species varied from 12.14–92.90, which were comparable with previous reports [80]. The highest RI value was calculated for Viola canescens (92.86), followed by Chenopodium ambrosioides, Pinus roxburghii, Conyza Canadensis, Jasminum grandiflorum (90.00, 82.86, 77.86, and 77.86, respectfully), whereas Pyrus malus, Galinsoga parviflora, and Hydrocotyle spp. have the same RI value (70.71 each). Plants with the highest RI indicate that they are primarily used by the inhabitants of the area and possess strong pharmacological properties [59] and their importance increases when it is used to cure more infirmities [109].

Table 3 Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data
Full size table

Relative frequency of citation

Relative frequency of citation (RFC) indicates the native importance of each plant species with respect to informants who reported the uses of these species [[5]. The RFC value of reported species ranged from 0.1 to 0.92 (Table 3). The highest RFC was calculated for Viola canescens (0.92) and, subsequently, Mentha arvensis (0.88), Berberis lycium (0.86), Achyranthes aspera (0.85), Taraxacum oficinale (0.85), Zanthoxylum alatum (0.82), Pinus roxburghii (0.80), Pyrus malus (0.80), Achillea millefolium (0.77), and Prunus persica (0.77). The high RFC value of these species indicates that inhabitants of the study area have a close association with these plant species and frequently use them to treat various diseases. The RFC data may contribute significantly to understand the importance of a plant species within an area, to conserve plant species having maximum RFC, and for biological, pharmacological, and phytochemical screening of such species. The high RFC of Viola canescens indicates that this species is commonly utilized by local communities to treat various health disorders. This leads to overexploitation of this species in the study area indicating a high conservation threat and may lead to extension into the future if not conserved immediately. Likewise, some plants having high RFC are rare in the study area and vice versa. For example, Rauvolfia serpentia is a rare plant in the study area but had a high FC (FC-43) value.

Use value

The use value (UV) index was used to measure the ethnomedicinal uses associated with documented medicinal plant species and is ranged from 0.11–1.7 (Table 3). The highest UV was reported for Viola canescens (1.7), followed by Achyranthes aspera (1.3), Achillea millefolium (0.96), Mentha arvensis (0.96), Ajuga bracteosa (0.93), Pinus roxburghii (0.9), Pyrus pashia (0.90), Prunus persica (0.89), Punica granatum (0.89) Allium cepa (0.88), and Prunella vulgaris (0.88). The high usage of the reported species indicates a strong association and dependence of local communities on surrounding flora, specifically for the treatment of various diseases and as food and livelihoods [51]. Moreover, the plant species which are used excessively are assumed to be biologically more active; therefore these should be subjected to phytochemical and pharmacological screening to increase sustainable utilization and conservation of plant resources [110].

Fidelity level

FL identifies the most preferred plant species used by traditional healers to cure various diseases and shows the proportion of informants reporting the use of specific plant species. The FL level of reported species was ranged from 15.8–100%. Figure 8 shows some top-ranked species with FL above 90%. Among these, five plant species which include Berberis lyceum, Mentha arvensis, Pyrus malus, Taraxacum officinale, and Viola canescens (for wound healing, to treat gastrointestinal disorders, body weakness, diabetes, and cough, respectively) have 100% fidelity level, whereas Morus alba had the lowest FL (15.8%) and was used to treat body weakness. These findings elucidate the dominance of specific ailments in the area that are cured with different plant species, particularly having high FL [81]. Plant species having high FL values are extensively used in the area compared to those with less FL values and similar findings have already been reported [35]. These plants are used to cure different ailments since ancient times in combination with other plants or ingredients and could be considered as model plants for pharmacological screening [38]. Despite the fact that modern health facilities are accessible in the study area, local communities especially in the mountainous parts of this region still rely on medicinal plants and possess significant traditional knowledge on plant resource utilization.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Top-ranked plant species with above 90% fidelity level

Full size image

Novel uses

The comparison of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants is helpful to determine the difference between region arising due to ecological [111], historical [112], organolep,tic and phytochemical differences [71, 113]. The Jaccard index (JI) is a quantitative index used to compare the ethnobotanical data with previous reports, specifically from adjoining areas. In this study, the data was compared with 22 previously published articles. The similarity percentage with the allied area ranges from 2.08–14.9, whereas our findings were dissimilar up to 41.8 from previous data (Table 4). The highest JI value (48.4) was with data reported previous [64] from Devi Galli Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. This similarity was due to the fact that both areas have the same type of vegetation and geography along with a similarity in culture and cross-cultural exchange of traditional knowledge among communities. Conversely, our data depicted the lowest similarity (JI = 2.08) with reported ethnomedicinal uses of plant species from Central Punjab, Pakistan [7]. These variations might be due to cultural diversity, geo-climatic conditions, habitat structure, and change on vegetation types of bath areas. More specifically, the origin and culture of local communities have a significant influence on ethno-ecological knowledge.

Table 4 Jaccard index comparing the present study with previous articles
Full size table

Comparative analysis of present findings with reported literature revealed some new uses of plant species, which have rarely been documented so far from this region, such as the stem ash of A. nilotica is used to treat eye infections. Leaves of A. bracteosa, A. rotundifolia, B. lyceum, I. rugosus, P. roxburghii, and T. officinale are used to cure stomach disorders, menstrual problems, and flu and to heal wounds in the form of different formulations (decoction, extract, paste, and powder). Likewise, inhabitants of the study area use fruits of F. nubicola, M. azedarach, M. africana, O. ferruginea, and S. nigrum for the treatment of diabetes and mouth infections, to remove intestinal worms, and for hair growth (Table 2). Consequently, documenting and comparing such information reflects the considerable intensity of knowledge among local communities, which can provide a novel source of remedial preparation [114] and indicates the high degree of ethnomedicinal novelty in the study area [20, 36].

Conclusions

Due to its unique geography and diverse climatic conditions, Dhirkot and its allied areas harbor rich botanical and cultural diversity. Though inhabitants of this area have a strong association with surrounding flora and fauna, ethnomedicinal knowledge is at an extreme risk of extinction as it is mainly restricted to traditional healers, midwives, and older people. Consequently, there is a dire need to avoid the extinction of this ethnobotanical heritage that could be attained by the involvement of concerned authorities, conservation managers, and academia. Furthermore, high-value medicinal plant species of this area not only could contribute significantly in the livelihood of the future generations, particularly of this region, but also be a rich source of biomass supply for pharmaceutical industries.

Availability of data and materials

All data have already been included in the manuscript.

References

  1. Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C, Sticher O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47(11):1859–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Panyaphu K, Van On T, Sirisa-Ard P, Srisa-Nga P, ChansaKaow S, Nathakarnkitkul S. Medicinal plants of the mien (Yao) in northern Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum women. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135(2):226–37.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Heinrich M. Ethnobotany and its role in drug development. Phytother Res. 2000;14(7):479–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Srithi K, Balslev H, Wangpakapattanawong P, Srisanga P, Trisonthi C. Medicinal plant knowledge and its erosion among the mien (Yao) in northern Thailand. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;123(2):335–42.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Vitalini S, Iriti M, Puricelli C, Ciuchi D, Segale A, Fico G. Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val san Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)—an alpine ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):517–29.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Baydoun S, Chalak L, Dalleh H, Arnold N. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine by the communities of mount Hermon, Lebanon. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:139–56.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Organization WH. Traditional medicine-growing needs and potential. WHO policy perspectives on medicine, no. 2. In.: WHO/EBM/2002. Geneva: WHO; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Haq I. Safety of medicinal plants. Pak J Med Res. 2004;43(4):203–10.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Shaikh BT, Hatcher J. Complementary and alternative medicine in Pakistan: prospects and limitations. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2005;2(2):139–42.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham A: Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants on biodiversity: global trends and issues. Biodiversity and the ecosystem approach in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 2002.

  11. Shinwari ZK. Medicinal plants research in Pakistan. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(3):161–76.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Shaikh SH, Malik F, James H, Abdul H. Trends in the use of complementary and alternative medicine in Pakistan: a population-based survey. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15(5):545–50.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Amjad MS, Arshad M. Ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal uses of some important woody plant species of Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(12):952–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Quave CL, Pieroni A. A reservoir of ethnobotanical knowledge informs resilient food security and health strategies in the Balkans. Nature Plants. 2015;1(2):14021.

    PubMed  Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Amjad MS, Arshad M, Qureshi R. Ethnobotanical inventory and folk uses of indigenous plants from Pir Nasoora National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2015;5(3):234–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Khan M, Khan MA, Mujtaba G, Hussain M. Ethnobotanical study about medicinal plants of Poonch valley Azad Kashmir. J animal plant Sci. 2012;22:493–500.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ishtiaq CM, Khan M, Hanif W. An ethnomedicinal inventory of plants used for family planning and sex diseases treatment in Samahni valley,(AK) Pakistan. Pak J Biol Sci. 2006;9(14):2546–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Akbar K. Potential impacts of climate change on plant diversity of hilly areas of Azad Kashmir and their mitigation: a review. J Mt Area Res. 2017;2:37–44.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Ajaib M, Khan Z, Khan N, Wahab M. Ethnobotanical studies on useful shrubs of district Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(3):1407–15.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Deng J, Akhtar N, Wazarat A, Mahroof S. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(1):68.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Gorsi M, Shahzad R: Medicinal uses of plants with particular reference to the people of Dhirkot. Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 2002.

  22. Khan RN. Distribution and habitat preference of small mammals in Dhirkot, AJK. M.Sc. Thesis. University of AJK, Muzaffarabad. Muzaffarabad: Thesis University of AJK; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Heinrich M, Edwards S, Moerman DE, Leonti M. Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(1):1–17.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Jain SK, Rao RR: A handbook of field and herbarium methods. New Delhi: today and tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers xvi, 157p-Illus General (KR, 197700062) 1977.

  25. Nasir E, Ali S: Flora of West Pakistan Department of Botany. University of Karachi, Karachi 1971, 2007:112–115.

  26. Ali S, Qaiser M. Flora of Pakistan 194–210. Karachi: Department of Botany, University of Karachi; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Chase MW, Christenhusz M, Fay M, Byng J, Judd WS, Soltis D, Mabberley D, Sennikov A, Soltis PS, Stevens PF. An update of the angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Bot J Linn Soc. 2016;181(1):1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Gardens RB, Kew MBG: The Plant List, Version 1.1. Recuperado el 2013, 2.

  29. Kadam P, Bhalerao S. Sample size calculation. Int J Ayurveda Res. 2010;1(1):55–70.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Edwards S, Nebel S, Heinrich M. Questionnaire surveys: methodological and epistemological problems for field-based ethnopharmacologists. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100(1–2):30–6.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Vijayakumar S, Yabesh JM, Prabhu S, Manikandan R, Muralidharan B. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the Nelliyampathy hills of Kerala, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;161:238–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Šavikin K, Zdunić G, Menković N, Živković J, Ćujić N, Tereščenko M, Bigović D. Ethnobotanical study on traditional use of medicinal plants in South-Western Serbia, Zlatibor district. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146(3):803–10.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  33. González-Tejero M, Casares-Porcel M, Sánchez-Rojas C, Ramiro-Gutiérrez J, Molero-Mesa J, Pieroni A, Giusti M, Censorii E, De Pasquale C, Della A. Medicinal plants in the Mediterranean area: synthesis of the results of the project Rubia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116(2):341–57.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Khan MPZ, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ali MI, Sun H. Ethnomedicinal uses of edible wild fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:191–203.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Friedman J, Yaniv Z, Dafni A, Palewitch D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel. J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16(2–3):275–87.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Umair M, Altaf M, Abbasi AM. An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous medicinal plants in Hafizabad district, Punjab-Pakistan. PloS one. 2017;12(6):e0177912.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Ahmed N, Mahmood A, Tahir S, Bano A, Malik RN, Hassan S, Ashraf A. Ethnomedicinal knowledge and relative importance of indigenous medicinal plants of Cholistan desert, Punjab Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155(2):1263–75.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Shinwari ZK, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Hussain M, Bibi T. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:186–202.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M, Khan MA, Khan MPZ, Yaseen G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (district swat-Pakistan). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):36.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Torres-Avilez W, Medeiros PMd, Albuquerque UP: Effect of gender on the knowledge of medicinal plants: systematic review and meta-analysis evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine 2016, 2016.

  41. de Albuquerque UP, Soldati GT, Sieber SS, Ramos MA, de Sá JC, de Souza LC. The use of plants in the medical system of the Fulni-ô people (NE Brazil): a perspective on age and gender. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133(2):866–73.

    PubMed  Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Khan M, Khan R, Ahmed M, Muhammad N, Khan M, Khan H, Atlas N, Khan F. Biological screening of methanolic crude extracts of Caralluma tuberculata. Int J Indigenous Med Plants. 2013;46:2051–4263.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Amsalu N, Bezie Y, Fentahun M, Alemayehu A, Amsalu G. Use and conservation of medicinal plants by indigenous people of Gozamin Wereda, east Gojjam zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical approach. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2018;2018.

  44. Muhammad A, Ihsan U, Akash T, Waheed M, Azizullah A, Khan A, Nawab A. Ethnomedicine use in the war affected region of northwest Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014:10(16).

  45. Gulzar H, Hazrat A, Gulzar K, Ali F, Khan N, Nisar M, Khan I, Abid Ullah A. Medicinal plants and their traditional uses in Thana Village, District Malakand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Int J Endorsing Health Sci Res. 2019;7(Issue 1).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Karunamoorthi K, Jegajeevanram K, Vijayalakshmi J, Mengistie E. Traditional medicinal plants: a source of phytotherapeutic modality in resource-constrained health care settings. J Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2013;18(1):67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Mafuva C, Marima-Matarira HT. Towards professionalization of traditional medicine in Zimbabwe: a comparative analysis to the South African policy on traditional medicine and the Indian Ayurvedic system. Int J Herbal Med. 2014;2(2 Part C):154–61.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Dweba T, Mearns M. Conserving indigenous knowledge as the key to the current and future use of traditional vegetables. Int J Inf Manag. 2011;31(6):564–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Shah MH, Shah MM, Pervez A, Ahmad M. Ethnobotanical appraisal and cultural values of medicinally important wild edible vegetables of lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):66.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Aziz MA, Adnan M, Khan AH, Rehman AU, Jan R, Khan J. Ethno-medicinal survey of important plants practiced by indigenous community at Ladha subdivision, South Waziristan agency, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):53.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA, Hussain J, Yaseen G. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;156:47–60.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):513–21.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Tugume P, Kakudidi EK, Buyinza M, Namaalwa J, Kamatenesi M, Mucunguzi P, Kalema J. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira central Forest reserve, Uganda. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):5.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Aletor G: Domiciliary midwifery care, including traditional birth attendants. In: Maternal and child health around the world. Springer; 1981: 89–98.

  55. Campero L, Garcia C, Diaz C, Ortiz O, Reynoso SA, Langer A. “alone, I wouldn’t have known what to do”: a qualitative study on social supportduring labor and delivery in Mexico. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47(3):395–403.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Napagoda MT, Sundarapperuma T, Fonseka D, Amarasiri S, Gunaratna P. An ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used as anti-inflammatory remedies in Gampaha District, Western Province, Sri Lanka. Scientifica. 2018;2018.

  57. Abdool Karim S, Ziqubu-Page T, Arendse R. Bridging the gap: project report for the South African Medical Research Council. S Afr Med J. 1994;84:1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Saynes-Vásquez A, Caballero J, Meave JA, Chiang F. Cultural change and loss of ethnoecological knowledge among the isthmus Zapotecs of Mexico. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):40.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Amjad MS, Qaseem MF, Ahmad I, Khan SU, Chaudhari SK, Malik NZ, Shaheen H, Khan AM. Correction: descriptive study of plant resources in the context of the ethnomedicinal relevance of indigenous flora: a case study from Toli peer National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. PloS one. 2017;12(7):e0180917.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Hussain A, Abbasi M, Hussain N, Majid S. A survey of important indigenous medicinal plants of district Bhimber Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Int J Adv Res. 2013;1:635–44.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Shaheen H, Qaseem MF, Amjad MS, Bruschi P. Exploration of ethno-medicinal knowledge among rural communities of Pearl Valley; Rawalakot, district Poonch Azad Jammu and Kashmir. PLoS One. 2017;12(9):e0183956.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Ajaib M, Anjum M, Malik NZ, Sidiqui MF. Ethnobotanical study of some plants of Darguti, tehsil Khuiratta, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Int J Biol Res. 2015;3(2):101–7.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Safeer S, Sarwar R, Ubaid-ul-Hassan KS, Anwar SMF. Exploration of ethnomedicinal flora used against various human ailments in moist temperate Himalayas of district Bagh, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Asian J Med Pharm Res. 2017;7(1):09–15.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Shabir A, Naveed IR, Uneeza J, Noor UAIZ, Hina J, Farhat Y. Ethno botanical Wisdom of Inhabitant of Devi Galli Azad Kashmir. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2017;1(6):1618–27.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Ahmad KS, Habib S. Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya region, Dawarian village, Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci. 2014;2(2):40–7.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Qaseem M, Qureshi R, Amjad MS, Ahmed W, Masood A, Shaheen H. Ethno-botanical evaluation of indigenous flora from the communities of rajh mehal and goi union councils of district Kotli, Azad Jammu Kashmir Pakistan. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2019;17(2):2799–829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Khan MT, Ahmad L, Rashid W. Ethnobotanical documentation of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Talash valley of Dir lower. Northern Pakistan J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2018;7(1):8–24.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R. A quantitative medico-botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. BioRxiv. 2019;507848.

  69. Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Rahman IU, Alam J, Khan SM, Shah GM, Khan K, Afzal A. Investigation of traditional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:208–33.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Hussain W, Badshah L, Ullah M, Ali M, Ali A, Hussain F. Quantitative study of medicinal plants used by the communities residing in Koh-e-Safaid range, northern Pakistani-afghan borders. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):30.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Aziz MA, Khan AH, Adnan M, Izatullah I. Traditional uses of medicinal plants reported by the indigenous communities and local herbal practitioners of Bajaur agency, federally administrated tribal areas Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;198:268–81.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Zahoor M, Yousaf Z, Aqsa T, Haroon M, Saleh N, Aftab A, Javed S, Qadeer M, Ramazan H. An ethnopharmacological evaluation of Navapind and Shahpur Virkanin district Sheikupura, Pakistan for their herbal medicines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:27.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15(1):7.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Fatima A, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Khan MPZ, Butt MA, Sultana S. Ethnopharmacological relevance of medicinal plants used for the treatment of oral diseases in Central Punjab-Pakistan. J Herbal Med. 2018;12:88–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Shinwari ZK. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Gujranwala district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148(2):714–23.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Yabesh JM, Prabhu S, Vijayakumar S. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional healers in silent valley of Kerala, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154(3):774–89.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Mouterde P. New Flora of Lebanon and Syria Beirut. Catholic Printing. 1983.

  78. Zia-Ul-Haq M, Ćavar S, Qayum M, Imran I, Feo VD. Compositional studies: antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12(12):8846–61.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Lulekal E, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Yineger H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008;4(1):10.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Faruque MO, Uddin SB, Barlow JW, Hu S, Dong S, Cai Q, Li X, Hu X. Quantitative ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by indigenous communities in the Bandarban District of Bangladesh. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:40.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Bibi T, Ahmad M, Tareen RB, Tareen NM, Jabeen R, Rehman SU, Sultana S, Zafar M. GY: ethnobotany of medicinal plants in district Mastung of Balochistan province-Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;147:79–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Agarwal K. RV: some ethnomedicinal plants of Bhopal district used for treating stone diseases. Int J Pharm Life Sci. 2012;3(13):56–62.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Yemele M, Telefo P, Lienou L, Tagne S, Fodouop C, Goka C, Lemfack M, Moundipa F. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for pregnant women’s health conditions in Menoua division-West Cameroon. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;160:14–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Khan MPZ, Arshad M, Ashraf MA. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the skardu valley at high altitude of Karakoram-Himalayan range, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):43.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Basualdo I, Zardini EM, Ortiz M. Medicinal plants of Paraguay: underground organs, II. Econ Botany. 1995;49(4):387–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Noctor G, Foyer CH. Ascorbate and glutathione: keeping active oxygen under control. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 1998;49(1):249–79.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Bekele G, Reddy PR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human ailments by Guji Oromo tribes in Abaya District, Borana, Oromia, Ethiopia. Univ J Plant Sci. 2015;3(1):1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Pascaline J, Charles M, George O, Lukhoba C. An inventory of medicinal plants that the people of Nandi use to treat malaria. J Anim Plant Sci. 2011;9:1192–200.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Nondo RS, Zofou D, Moshi MJ, Erasto P, Wanji S, Ngemenya MN, Titanji VP, Kidukuli AW, Masimba PJ. Ethnobotanical survey and in vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Kagera and Lindi regions, Tanzania. J Med Plants Res. 2015;9(6):179–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Gürdal B, Kültür Ş. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Marmaris (Muğla, Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146(1):113–26.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  91. El Amri J, El Badaoui K, Zair T, Bouharb H, Chakir S, Alaoui T. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the region El Hajeb (Central Morocco). J Res Biol. 2015;4(8):1568–80.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Li W-F, Jiang J-G, Chen J. Chinese medicine and its modernization demands. Arch Med Res. 2008;39(2):246–51.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Boudjelal A, Henchiri C, Sari M, Sarri D, Hendel N, Benkhaled A, Ruberto G. Herbalists and wild medicinal plants in M'Sila (North Algeria): an ethnopharmacology survey. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148(2):395–402.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Luitel DR, Rokaya MB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of Central Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):5.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Mia M. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by indigenous and tribal people in Rangamati, Bangladesh. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;144(3):627–37.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Shaheen S, Abbas S, Hussain J, Mabood F, Umair M, Ali M, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Farooq U, Khan A. Knowledge of medicinal plants for children diseases in the environs of district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa (KPK). Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:430.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Polat R, Cakilcioglu U, Kaltalioğlu K, Ulusan MD, Türkmen Z. An ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Espiye and its surrounding (Giresun-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:1–11.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Uzun M, Kaya A. Ethnobotanical research of medicinal plants in Mihalgazi (Eskişehir, Turkey). Pharm Biol. 2016;54(12):2922–32.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  99. WHO: International Classification ofPrimary Care, Second edition (ICPC-2).). 〈http://www.whoint/classifications/icd/adaptations/icpc2/en/〉 1987. (Accessed 22 Jan 2017).

  100. Adzu B, Gamaniel K. Sedative effects of Cassia singueana root bark. J Nat Remedies. 2003;3(2):134–7.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Schlage C, Mabula C, Mahunnah R. Heinrich: medicinal plants of the Washambaa (Tanzania): documentation and ethnopharmacological evaluation. Plant Biol. 2000;2(1):83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Ahmad M, Khan MA, Zafar M, Arshad M, Sultana S, Abbasi BH. Use of chemotaxonomic markers for misidentified medicinal plants used in traditional medicines. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(13):1244–52.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Guan Y-S, He Q. Plants consumption and liver health. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015;2015.

  104. Adnan M, Ullah I, Tariq A, Murad W, Azizullah A, Khan AL, Ali N. Ethnomedicine use in the war affected region of Northwest Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10(1):16.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Kamwong K, Sukkho T, Trisonthi C. Ethnomedicinal plants used for digestive system disorders by the Karen of northern Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:27.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Malla B, Gauchan DP, Chhetri RB. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;165:103–17.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Murad W, Azizullah A, Adnan M, Tariq A, Khan KU, Waheed S, Ahmad A. Ethnobotanical assessment of plant resources of Banda Daud Shah, district Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):77.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Albuquerque UP, Lucena RF, Monteiro JM, Florentino AT, Almeida CFC. Evaluating two quantitative ethnobotanical techniques. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2006;4:51–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Trotter RT, Logan MH. In: Etkin NL, editor. “Informant consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants,” in Plants in Indigenous Medicine and Diet: Biobehavioral Approaches. New York: Redgrave Publishing Company; 1986. p. 91–112.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Ladio AH, Lozada M, Weigandt M. Comparison of traditional wild plant knowledge between aboriginal communities inhabiting arid and forest environments in Patagonia, Argentina. J Arid Environ. 2007;69:695–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Moerman DE. Native american ethnobotany. Portland, Oregon: timber press. Edinb J Bot. 1998;56(2):317–8.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Leonti M, Sticher O, Heinrich M. Antiquity of medicinal plant usage in two macro-mayan ethnic groups. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;88:119–24.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Leonti M. The future is written: impact of scripts on the cognition, selection, knowledge and transmission of medicinal plant use and its implications for ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134(3):542–55.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Local inhabitants of the study area are gratefully acknowledged for sharing valuable information.

Declaration

Ethnomedicinal and cultural practices of mammals and birds in the vicinity of river Chenab, Punjab-Pakistan.

Funding

This paper is a part of a master’s thesis by student Miss Asia Farooq (first author). However, no funding was provided by any source to conduct this survey.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh, Pakistan

    Asia Farooq & Muhammad Shoaib Amjad

  2. Department of Environment Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, 22060, Pakistan

    Khalid Ahmad & Arshad Mehmood Abbasi

  3. Department of Zoology, Women University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Bagh, Pakistan

    Muhammad Altaf

  4. School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China

    Muhammad Umair

Authors
  1. Asia Farooq
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Muhammad Shoaib Amjad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Khalid Ahmad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Muhammad Altaf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Muhammad Umair
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Arshad Mehmood Abbasi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

AF designed the study and conducted field survey; MSA supervised the project; KA, MA, MU helped in data analysis, interpretation, and preparation/correction of the final draft. All the authors critically read this article and approved it as the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arshad Mehmood Abbasi.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The present study is purely based on a field survey instead of human or animal trails. Therefore, ethical approval and consent to participate is not applicable. However, formal consent was received from informants regarding data collection and publication; then, the Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach as mentioned in the Kyoto Protocol was applied with the consent of the informant. Ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/) were strictly followed.

Consent for publication

The present paper does not contain any individual person’s data; therefore, this section is not applicable to our study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Farooq, A., Amjad, M.S., Ahmad, K. et al. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the rural communities of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 15, 45 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0323-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0323-2

Keywords

  • Traditional knowledge
  • Medicinal plants
  • FC
  • ICF
  • Dhirkot

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine

ISSN: 1746-4269

Contact us