Ethnobotany in South-Eastern Europe is gaining the interest of several scholars and stakeholders, since it is increasingly considered a key point for the re-evaluation of local bio-cultural heritage. The region of Gollobordo, located in Eastern Albania and bordering the Republic of Macedonia, is of particular interest for conducting ethnobiological studies, since it remained relatively isolated for the larger part of the 20th Century and is traditionally inhabited by a majority of ethnic Macedonians and a minority of Albanians (nowadays both sharing the Muslim faith).
Methods
An ethnobotanical survey focused on local food, medicinal, and veterinary plant uses was conducted with 58 participants using open and semi-structured interviews and via participant observation.
Results
We recorded and identified 115 taxa of vascular plants, which are locally used for food, medicinal, and veterinary purposes (representing 268 total plant reports). The Macedonian Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) was greater than the Albanian TEK, especially in the herbal and ritual domains. This phenomenon may be linked to the long socio-cultural and linguistic isolation of this group during the time when the borders between Albania and the former Yugoslavia were completely closed. Moreover, the unusual current food utilisation of cooked potatoes leaves, still in use nowadays among Macedonians, could represent the side effect of an extreme adaptation that locals underwent over the past century when the introduction of the potato crop made new strategies available for establishing stable settlements around the highest pastures. Additionally, the difference in use of Helichrysum plicatum, which is popular in the local Macedonian folk medicine but absent among Albanians, confirms the particular significance of this taxon as it relates to the yellow colour of its flowers in South Slavic folklore.
Conclusion
Botanical studies with an ethnographic approach are crucial for understanding patterns of use of plants within given cultures. Importantly, such studies can also allow for analysis of the dynamics of change in these TEK patterns over the time. The results of this study may be important as baseline data set to be used in rural development programs in Gollobordo, aimed at fostering community-based strategies of management of natural resources.
Ethnobiological studies conducted in recent years in Eastern Europe have highlighted complex, dynamic systems of folk botanical, mycological, and ecological knowledge [1–28].
This heritage is known in the ethnobiological literature as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), which has been defined as a "cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” [29].
In particular, the portion of TEK concerning plants is nowadays increasingly considered crucial in South and South-Eastern Europe for fostering community-based strategies of management of natural resources. It may also represent the starting point for initiatives aimed at the reevaluation of local plants devoted to both small scale food and herbal markets and eco-touristic initiatives [30–37]. Additionally, studies focused on plant uses that have been conducted in Eastern Europe with an in-depth historical or ethno-historical approach [38, 39] or via archival research and/or contemporary surveys conducted among botanists remembering their childhood [40–44] have demonstrated how plant perceptions change over time, in response to a complex interplay of socio-cultural, environmental, and economic dynamics.
In the past few years, we have concentrated our research on the botanical knowledge overlaps and exchanges between South Slavs and Albanians in multi-cultural or bordering areas in South-Eastern Europe [26, 39] and on the resilience of TEK [45] among diasporas in the same area [46]. In these studies, we observed phenomena of hybridization of botanical knowledge, as well as a more “herbophilic” [47] attitude of the Slavs in comparison to the Albanians. In the current study, we wanted to further analyze the local botanical knowledge systems among Macedonians and Albanians living in the Gollobordo region, in Eastern Albania.
We could postulate that ethnic Macedonians in this area in Albania preserved much of their original folk botanical heritage because of their isolation in the past decades. This isolation was especially evident during the Communist period (1945–1991), both from the Albanian neighbors and also from those Macedonians, who remained after the creation of the Albanian state (1912) on the other side of the border (at the time within the territory of the Kingdom of Serbia, later Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and then Yugoslavia, nowadays Republic of Macedonia). Nevertheless, the fact that both the Albanian and Macedonian communities of Gollobordo share the same faith (Islam) for the most part, with some intermarriage in the past decades, there may have been some exchange of botanical knowledge. In order to assess all of this, we designed the objectives of this study to: 1) record traditional uses of local botanicals (both cultivated and wild) for food, medicine, and veterinary purposes among Macedonians and Albanians; 2) verify the occurrence of an expected richer, “more conservative” Macedonian ethnobotany; and 3) analyze differences and commonalities in the traditional plant knowledge between the two communities and to propose some explanatory models.
Methods
Study area
The current study was conducted in eight villages of the mountain of the Gollobordo area, in Eastern Albania, bordering the Republic of Macedonia (Figure 1); the focus was on three villages inhabited by ethnic Macedonians: Klenje (1,203 m.a.s.l), Gjinovec (1,252 m.a.s.l.), and Steblevë (1,200 m.a.s.l.) – this last village included within the newly established Shebenik–Jabllanice National Park, with an overall permanent population of approx. 300 inhabitants (while Gjinovec is only inhabited nowadays during the late spring and summer months); and three villages inhabited by Albanians: Sebisht (915 m.a.s.l.), Borovë (940 m.a.s.l.), and Zabzun (1,028 m.a.s.l.), with an overall permanent population of approx. 300 inhabitants as well. Additionally, in order to have a sample more adherent to the ethnic proportion of Gollobordo (for which more than two-thirds is inhabited by Macedonians), a few additional interviews were also conducted in the larger Macedonian villages of Ostren i madh (948 m.a.s.l., approx. 1000 inhabitants) and Trebisht (782 m.a.s.l., approx. 1,000 inhabitants).
Figure 1
The study area.
The local economy is based on small-scale farming and pastoralist activities, with a significant portion of the population that migrates to Tirana and/or other city centers and sometimes back for a few months in their villages only during the late spring and summer months (Figure 2). According to the Albanian Institute of Statistics data, Gollobordo and the entire Eastern and North-Eastern region of Albania (covering Peshkopia and Kukës counties) are among the economically poorest areas of not only the country, but also all of Europe [48]. All of the villages in the Gollobordo are nowadays permanently inhabited only by families of Islamic faith, while until the 1990s, most of the Macedonian villages also had an important Christian Orthodox component. The local dialect of the Macedonian minority, now spoken by less than 3,000 inhabitants, has been the focus of a number of studies conducted by Slavic linguists in the past Century. Two remarkable field ethnolinguistic and ethnographic studies have also been conducted in Gollobordo in recent years [49, 50].
Figure 2
Typical Macedonian house inhabited nowadays only in the late spring and summer season in Gjinovec (1,252 m.a.s.l.).
The climate of this area is continental, with very harsh temperatures and snowfall during the winter season. The landscape around these villages is dominated by low mountains covered by the Quercus frainetto woodland belt, and by the Fagus sylvatica woodland belt at higher elevations. Sometimes it is possible to find some woodland fragments of Quercus cerris (in soil containing more clay) and Castanea sativa (in more acidic soil); in addition, there is some reforestation by Pinus nigra, probably carried out during the Communist period (1945–1991). The landscape is also covered by large extensions of secondary patches of semi-natural dry and humid grassland. A riparian marshy vegetation is found along the valleys, which is frequently fragmented and residual, dominated by some species of Salix, such as S. alba, S. eleagnos (sometimes really large) and, less frequently, S. purpurea. In the secondary succession, it is easy to find some different shrub species such as Corylus avellana, Cornus mas, Juniperus communis, Crataegus monogyna, Crataegus sericea and Juniperus oxycedrus. Up to the village of Klenje, within a high plateau, we could observe a large population of Prunus cocomilia.
The main herbal vegetation in the villages is anthropogenic, with ruderal/nitrophylic species and cultivars like Vitis labrusca, some fruit trees (esp. Prunus species) and some vegetables; Vitis labrusca is traditionally cultivated climbing on trees with light pruning.
The main trees are situated in a gradient between wild and domesticated conditions: Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus cerris, Q. frainetto (mostly as totem trees), Prunus avium, P. domestica, P. cerasus, P. cerasifera, Juglans nigra, Cydonia oblonga, Malus domestica, Pyrus communis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Populus nigra, Ailanthus altissima, Syringa vulgaris, Acer campestre, while the most common shrubs are Rosa canina s.l. and Rubus hirtus, R. caesius, R. ulmifolius, and Clematis vitalba.
Field study
In May 2013, in-depth open and semi-structured interviews were conducted with community members (n = 58, 43 Macedonians and 15 Albanians; age between 9 and 87 years old), which were selected using snowball sampling techniques. Study participants were asked about traditional uses of food, medicinal, veterinary, and ritual plants (in use until a few decades ago or still in use nowadays) via semi-structured and open interviews, walks in the natural environment in the proximity of the villages together with informants, and participant observation within the households. Specifically, local name(s) of each quoted taxon, the plant part(s) used, in-depth details about its/their manipulation/preparation and actual medicinal or food use(s) were recorded. Interviews were conducted in Albanian or Macedonian languages with the help a bilingual simultaneous translator. Prior informed consent was always verbally obtained prior to conducting interviews and researchers adhered to the ethical guidelines of the American Anthropological Association [51]. During the interviews, informants were always asked to show the quoted plants. Voucher specimens were taken for the wild taxa, when available, and are deposited at the herbarium of the School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine of the University of Camerino, Italy (Herbarium Universitatis Camerinensis; acronym: CAME).
Taxonomic identification was conducted according to the official Flora of Albania [52–55] and the previous Albanian Excursion Flora [56]. For Crataegus spp. we referred to the Rosaceae’s taxonomy in Euro + Med PlantBase [57]. Family assignations follow the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III system [58]. Local plant names were transcribed following the rules of the standard Ghegh Albanian and Macedonian languages.
Results and discussion
Overall, we recorded the local uses of 116 taxa of vascular plants; we documented 268 plant reports, 105 for food, 87 for human medicine, and 76 for veterinary applications.
Given the variety of means through which data were elicited in the field, detailed cultural importance, frequency and consensus indexes, which do always require consistently performed interviews, were not considered in the data analysis.
However, in the tables and in the data used for the comparison we included only plant uses reported by at least two informants, as well as those uses, which were quoted by the majority of the interviewees.
Food plants
The food use of 55 taxa were recorded, 25 of which are wild or semi-domesticated (Table 1).
Table 1
Local food plant uses recorded in the study area
Taxon, family and voucher specimen code
Recorded Albanian folk name(s)
Recorded Macedonian folk name(s)
Status
Plant part(s) used
Traditional modalities of consumption and other recorded information
Alb
Mac
Allium cepa L.
Qepa
Кромид
C
AP; Bu
Raw and cooked (traditionally filling for pies made with corn flour - byrekALB/komatMAC)
+
+
Amaryllidaceae
Allium porrum L.
Pras
Праз
C
AP
Filling for pies
+
Amaryllidaceae
Allium sativum L.
Hurdhëra
Лук
C
Bu
Seasoning
+
+
Amaryllidaceae
Atriplex hortensis L.
Laboda
Лабода, Лобода
C
L
Filling for pies
+
+
Amaranthaceae
Beta vulgaris L.
Panxhari
C
R
Ingredient for making halva*
+
Amaranthaceae
L
Filling for pies
+
Brassica oleracea L.
Liakër, Liakra
Зелка, Расол
C
L
Pickled/lacto-fermented in water and salt); the liquid resulting from of the lacto-fermentation (rasol) was eaten with bread by the poorest community members*
+
+
Brassicaceae
Sarma
+
L
Filling for pies
+
Capsicum annuum L.
Spec
Пиперка
C
Fr
Cooked
+
Solanaceae
Lacto-fermented in water and salt or in yogurt ricotta
+
+
Castanea sativa Mill.
Kostenja
W
Fr
Boiled or roasted
+
+
Fagaceae
CAME 26314
Cornus mas L.
Thana
Дрен
W
Fr
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
+
Cornaceae
CAME 26279
Fermented into vinegar
+
+
Syrup and compote (dried fruits boiled with water and sugar)
+
+
Concentrated syrup/soft jam (pekmez)
+
Jam
+
(Fermented?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of a fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar; considered very healthy, is often consumed adding sugar)
Filling for pies; pickled/lacto-fermented (in water and salt)
+
+
Cucurbitaceae
Cydonia oblonga Mill.
Ftoi
Дуња
C
Fr
Jams (sometimes prepared dipping in a preliminary procedure the fruits pieces in water and lime, then boiling with sugar, so that the fruit pieces remained hard at the end)
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26290
Compote (fruits boiled with water)
+
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar
+
Daucus carota L.
C
R
Lacto-fermented in water and salt
+
Apiaceae
CAME 26208
Fagus sylvatica L.
Ahu
Бук
W
K
Raw as snack (however, consumption of large amounts may generate headaches)*
+
+
Fagaceae
CAME 26249
Wo
Fuel for smoking meat
+
Fragaria × ananassa Duch. ex Rozier
Lule shtrydhe
C
Fr
Raw
+
Rosaceae
Fragaria vesca L.
Derthea, Dirthene
Ягодка, Ягода
W
Fr
Raw
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26247
Helianthus tuberosus L.
Шалгун
SD
T
Raw or cooked
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26312
Hordeum vulgare L.
Elb
Jaчмен
C
Frfl
Bread (mixed with rye flour)*
+
Poaceae
Fr
Roasted and decocted, as a kind of coffee
+
Juglans regia L.
Arra
Орев
SD; C
K
Raw, or various cakes
+
+
Juglandaceae
CAME 26238
Juniperus communis L.
Dllinja
Смрека
W
Fr
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
+
Cupressaceae
CAME 26253
Seasoning ingredient for lacto-fermented vegetables
+
Lactuca sativa L.
Sallata
Лоштика
C
L
Raw of filling for pies
+
Asteraceae
Malus domestica Borkh.
Molla (Molla e kuqe, Sterkinka)
Јаболка (италианска, кисели, Ренета, Штерка)
C
Fr
Raw and dried (hoshaf)
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26236
Sliced and dried; consumed boiled
+
Fr
Fermented and distilled in raki
+
Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.
Molla e egër
Дива Јаболка
W
Fr
Dried (hoshaf)
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26288
Fermented into vinegar
+
+
Medicago sativa L.
Jonxha
C
L
Cooked, as an emergency (famine) food*
+
Fabaceae
CAME 26292
Morus alba L.
Mani
Mурвинка
C
Fr
Jams and compote
+
Moraceae
CAME 2631
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Fasulja, Grosh
Грав
C
Fr; Se
Cooked
+
+
Fabaceae
L
Filling for pies
+
Sarma
+
UF
Cooked, filling for pies
+
Prunus cerasifera Ehrh.
Kumbullë Elbasani, Kumbullë kokormadhe
Слива Елбасанска
SD
Fr
Fermented and distilled in raki
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26266
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours
+
Jam
+
Prunus avium (L.) L.
Qershija
Цреша (питома)
C
Fr
Raw
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26240
Prunus cerasus L.
CAME 26298
Rosaceae
Jams
+
+
Compote (fruits boiled with water and sugar)
+
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar)
+
Dye for hard boiled eggs to which are consumed on St. George’s Day, as a good omen
+
Prunus cerasus var. marasca (Host) Vis.
Qershija e egër
Дива цреша
W; C
Fr
Raw
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26299
Prunus cocomilia Ten.
Дива слива
W
Fr
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26277
Prunus domestica L.
Kumbulla
Слива (блага, магарица, жолта, синица)
C
Fr
Raw and dried
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26239
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
+
Jam
+
+
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar)
+
Prunus spinosa L.
Kolumbria, Kurmulia
Дива слива
W
Fr
Gathered after the frost and consumed raw as snack, or fermented and distilled into raki, or transformed into a compote
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26260
Pyrus communis L.
Dardha
Kруша
C
Fr
Raw and dried
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26306
Compote (fruits boiled with water and sugar)
+
Jam
+
Fermented and distilled into raki
+
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar)
+
Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd.
Dhardhë e egër, Gorrica
Дива круша
W
Fr
Gathered after the frost, ripened on straw, and consumed dried or in compote
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26244
Pyrus amygdaliformis Vill.
Rosaceae
CAME 26316
Jam
+
Ribes multiflorum Kit. ex Roem. et Schult.
Диво грозje
W
Fr
Snack
+
Grossulariaceae
CAME 26263
Rubus idaeus L.
Малина
W; C
Fr
Snack
+
Rosaceae
CAM 26321
Syrup and compote (fruits boiled with water)
+
Rubus hirtus Waldst. et Kit.
Fermoza, Manaferra
Капина
W
Fr
Raw and jams
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26258
Rubus ulmifolius Schott
Rosaceae
CAME 26310
Rubus caesius L.
Rosaceae
CAME 26245
Syrup and compote (fruits boiled with water)
+
Fermented and distilled in raki
+
Rumex acetosa L.
Ufull, Uthull
Киселец
W
L
Boiled, then in filling for pies (byrekALB/komatMAC) or as vegetables cooked with rice and dairy products (buranjeALB/zeljeMAC); traditionally dried and then used during the whole winter
+
Polygonaceae
CAME 26243
Rumex conglomeratus
Murray
CAME 26286
Polygonaceae
Infusion: to be used for preparing yogurt (if starter culture is missing)
+
L; St
Snack
+
+
Rumex patientia L.
Lepjeta
Щавел
W
L
Boiled, then used filling for pies or as vegetables cooked with dairy products; traditionally dried and then used during the winter
+
+
Polygonaceae
CAME 26285
Secale cereale L.
Thekna
Рж
C
Frfl
Mixed with corn flour: bread, esp. in the past*
+
+
Poaceae
Fr
Roasted and decocted, as a kind of coffee
+
Solanum lycopersicum L.
Domate, Patlixhan kuqe
Црвени патлиџани
C
UF
Lacto-fermented in water and salt
+
+
Solanaceae
Fr
Raw and cooked
+
+
L
Cooked (emergency/famine food)*
+
Solanum melongena L.
Patlixhan i zezë
Црни патлиџани
C
Fr
Cooked
+
Solanaceae
Solanum tuberosum L.
Patate
Компири
C
T
Cooked
+
+
Solanaceae
YL
Filling for pies (only in the past among Albanians)*. The bitter taste is particularly appreciated by the Macedonian communities; young potatoe leaves are the most common filling for the traditional pie (komat) in June, after the young nettle’s season end
+
+
Sarma
+
Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H. Wigg.
Qumështore
Млечак, Млекаица, Жело
W
L
Salads
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26289
Urtica dioica L.
Hjeth, Hisel, Hithra, Hith
Коприва
W
YL
Boiled, then used in filling for pies or cooked with rice and dairy products
+
+
Urticaceae
CAME 26262
Vaccinium myrtillus L.
Borovnica, Rrush i egër
Диво грозje, Цршине
W
Fr
Snack
+
+
Ericaceae
Fermented into a fruit soda-like beverage
+
Compote
+
Vitis labrusca L.
Rrush (variety Çelek)
Грозje (Шилек)
C
Fr
Fermented into wine or vinegar
+
+
Vitaceae
CAME 26265
Concentrated juice (pekmez)
+
Fermented (?) beverage obtained boiling the fruits in water for a few hours (the resulting beverage is kind of fruit soda, which is kept in the fridge or in the cellar
+
L
Sarma
+
+
Zea mays L.
Misër
Пченка
C
Frfl
Bread, pies
+
+
Poaceae
YL
Filling for pies
+
Diverse tree species
W; C
WA
Added to flour, water, and eggs for producing home-made noodles (jufka)
+
As a disinfectant, rubbed onto the sheep’s stomach before it is cooked and eaten
+
Added to water when boiling corn
+
§: first record of the species in Albania.
In bold: folk taxa quoted by more than 40% of the informants.
C: cultivated; SD: semi-domesticated; W: wild.
*: past use.
+: recorded use.
Plant part(s) used: AP aerial parts; Bu bulbs; Fr fruits; Frfl flour from fruits; K kernels; L leaves; R roots; Se seeds; St stems; T tubers; UF unripe fruits; Wo wood; WA ashes from wood; YL young leaves.
Among the most uncommon uses, we have to mention the use of potato leaves, both for sarma (leaves rolled around a minced meat and rice filling) and especially as filling for white corn-flour based pies (laknur or byrek in Albanian, komat in Macedonian), which is still very common among the Macedonians living in the highest villages of Gollobordo, while among Albanians this was remembered as a past use only. We found this use of potato leaves as filling for savory pies to be quite common in Gollobordo in June, after the “nettle season” (Urtica dioica), which is the primary wild plant used in the early spring, while Rumex spp. dominates later in the season as a pie filling ingredient. We recently found a similar relictual use among the last Albanians living in the upper Reka valley, on the Macedonian side of Mount Korab [39].
The archaeologist Michael Galaty and his team have recently conducted intensive field research in the mountainous Shala Valley in Northern Albania. Galaty has proposed that the Little Ice Age and the introduction of maize, which took place in the Balkans starting from the 16th Century [59, 60], played a crucial role in the remarkable demographic expansion in this area in the 17th and 18th Century [61]. We believe that the introduction of the potato crop (Solanum tuberosum) in the mountainous areas of the Western Balkans and in the Gollobordo area (presumably at the end of the 19th Century) may have also similarly determined a remarkable vertical expansion of the inhabited landscape, offering locals for the first time in the history of the region the possibility to permanently colonize and settle the higher pastures. As a side-effect of this shift, which was sustained by an increase of food resources (dairy products and potatoes), the leaves of the potato plant may have also been considered as a vegetable, especially in the spring, where this would have largely become available and when not many other green leafy vegetables are available (apart from wild nettles and Rumex spp.). The toxic glycoalkaloid content of the potato leaves could perhaps be reduced by the way in which they are traditionally collected and prepared. Only the young leaves are gathered and they are boiled in water before being used as a pie filling. Indeed, research on the chemistry of S. tuberosum leaves has demonstrated that glycoalkaloid content (measured by levels of α-solanine and α-chaconine) are at their lowest in the young leaves, with those appearing on the most distal-location of the stem having the overall lowest glycoalkaloid content [62]. However, the boiling step likely reduces small level of the overall glycoalkaloid content, thus the final product would be expected to contain a somewhat bitter quality, and indeed, our participants confirmed that the pie made with potato leaves is appreciated exactly because of its “bitter taste”.
On the other hand, the consumption of “bitter” potatoes (with high glycoalkaloid contents) has been well discussed by Timothy Johns [63] for the case of the Aymara population in Southern America, where bitter potato varieties (jank’o and luq’i) were often eaten unprocessed after the harvest.
Other important uncommon cultivated food sources we found included the young leaves of corn (Zea mays) as pie filling, and bean leaves for use in sarma. Upon consideration of trees, the rare food use of Prunus cocomilia for producing home-made raki should be better analyzed under the viewpoint of sensory analysis for possible local economic development outcomes. In fact, the local know-how on mixing, fermenting, and home-distilling various Prunus tree fruits in Gollobordo, as in other areas of the Balkans, seems to be extremely sophisticated.
Medicinal plants
The recorded local uses of 53 medicinal plant taxa are reported in Table 2. It is worthwhile to mention the case of Helichrysum plicatum (Figure 3), which is the most quoted taxon among the Macedonians of Gollobordo. Within this ethnic group, this medicinal herb is the most frequently used remedy as it is applied in the treatment of many diseases as a kind of panacea. The high cultural consensus concerning the use of Helichrysum spp. in the Macedonian and Bulgarian medical folklore is remarkable in the scientific literature. A number of folk names referred to this taxon in Bulgarian retain the root “smil”, which has the meaning of physical beauty and health; moreover, in Bulgarian folk medicine, this taxon has been considered to be a real panacea and is often used for many purposes: as a diuretic, against dropsy, liver diseases, jaundice, stagnation of blood in the abdomen, tinnitus, low blood pressure, bone spikes, rheumatism, sciatica, rickets, worms, deafness and for treating skin diseases [64, 65]. The ritual use of this plant in the South Slavic folklore is often linked to the bright yellow color of its flowers, which symbolizes sun and light, virginity, moral purity, and mercy in the Balkan folkloric tradition [66]. In Bulgaria, Helichrysum had to be collected in the morning of Georgyovden (corresponding to St. George’s day, May 6th) and were sewn into the hem of garments as an amulet. In order to prevent jaundice in newborns, a bunch of Helichrysum was placed under the infant’s pillow. The flowering aerial parts of this plant were used in wedding bouquets and the plant is mentioned in wedding songs and used as a sign of marriage [65, 67]. Additionally, flowers of Helichrysum were believed to be able to provide a girl with a fiancé; according to this belief, while the flower is fresh, the girl will be a maiden, when it has withered – she will be engaged, and when it is dried – she will marry [65].
Table 2
Medicinal local plant uses recorded in the study area
Taxon, family and voucher specimen code
Folk name(s) recorded among Albanians
Folk name(s) recorded among Macedonians
Status
Plant part(s) used
Recorded modalities of medicinal uses(s) and treated pathologies
Alb
Mac
Achillea collina (Becker ex Rchb.f.) Heimerl
Бело цвеkе
W
Fl
Decoction: cicatrizing on wounds
+
Asteraceae
Achillea millefolium L.
Asteraceae
CAME 26294
Allium cepa L.
#
#
C
J
Instilled in the ear for treating earaches
+
Amaryllidaceae
Allium porrum L.
#
#
C
AP
Heated, mixed with water and salt, to externally treat chilblains
+
Amaryllidaceae
J
Instilled in the ear for treating earaches
+
Allium sativum L.
#
#
C
Bu
Consumed as an anti-hypertensive
+
+
Amaryllidaceae
To be worn as amulet against the evil-eye in the or in necklaces (sysh, naok)
+
+
Arum italicum Mill.
Shakulliza
W
Fr
Infusion: arthritis
+
Araceae
Asplenium trichomanes L.
Fier guri
W
L
Infusion: diuretic
+
+
Aspleniaceae
CAME 26293
Bovista sp.
Fenë arrushe, Fushkaica
Пуша
W
DFB
Externally applied on wounds
+
+
Agaricaceae
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
Овцец
W
AP
Fodder
+
Asteraceae
Cornus mas L.
#
#
W
Fr
Consumed as snack for strengthening the heart
+
Cornaceae
CAME 26279
Fermented into vinegar, applied on the breast: anti-fever
+
Fermented and distilled in raki, drunk: anti-asthmatic; believed to able to treat “seven” diseases
+
FB
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hang in March on the churn and on the stable doors, as a good omen for the diary production
+
+
Corylus avellana L.
#
#
W
FB
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hung in March on the churn, as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Betulaceae
CAME 26242
Crataegus monogyna Jacq.
#
#
W
Th
Externally applied: for treating snake bites
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26280
Crataegus sericea Dzekov§
Rosaceae
CAME 26278
L; F
Infusion: for treating headaches, insomnia, hypertension, anti-rheumatic, anti-cancer
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hung in March on the churn and on the stable doors, as a good omen for the dairy production; same at St. George’s day (May 6th )
+
Cruciata laevipes Opiz
Gjak edhe qumësht
W
AP
Crushed, mixed with salt, and given as fodder to the sheep at St. George’s Day (May 6th): considered propitiatory for the good health of the animals
+
Rubiaceae
CAME 26276
Cydonia oblonga Mill.
#
#
C
L
Infusion: stomachache
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26290
Euphorbia characias L.
Rrydh, Shpengull
Лишај
W
R
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hang on the churn, as a good omen for the diary production
+
+
Euphorbiaceae
CAME 2628
Fraxinus excelsior L.
Jасика
W
L
Infusion: diuretic
+
Oleaceae
CAME 26304
Helleborus odorus Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd.
Kukurek, Lule ditvere
Кукурек
W
R
Inserted on the horse ear: panacea
+
Ranunculaceae
CAME 26282
F
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hang on the churn, as a good omen for the dairy production
+
+
Helichrysum plicatum DC. and other Helichrysum species
Borsillok i verdhë
Свилен
W
FAP
Infusion: appetizing, stomachaches, as a digestive, anti-diarrheal, cardiotonic, diuretic, anti-moths
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26274
Infusion: hepatitis
+
Hypericum perforatum L.
Балсам
W
FAP
Infusion: stomachache
+
Hypericaceae
CAME 26270
Juglans regia L.
#
#
SD
UF
Infusion: for treating hyperthyroidism
+
Juglandaceae
CAME 26238
Crushed, externally applied on the hair as dyeing agent
Fermented and distilled into raki, which is drunk for treating asthma
+
Juniperus oxycedrus L.
Смрека
W
Fr
Infusion: bechic
+
Cupressaceae
CAME 26267
Malus domestica Borkh.
#
#
C
Fr
Sliced and dried; consumed boiled for treating stomachache
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26236
Malva sylvestris L.
Леблебија
W
Fr
Snack
+
Malvaceae
CAME 26295
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Kamomill
W
FT
Infusion: recreational
+
Asteraceae
Melissa officinalis L.
Bosillek Micël
C
AP
Infusion: headaches
+
Lamiaceae
CAME 26235
Infusion in external washes for newlyweds, as a good omen
+
High dosage to be avoided by males, who could lose their libido
+
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Duhan
C
L
Dried and ground (tobacco), externally applied on wounds
+
Solanaceae
Orchis spp.
Salep
Салеп
W
R
Dried, powdered, then in decoction: panacea, reconstituent (often consumed with bread); to improve fertility in males
+
+
Orchidaceae
Dried, powdered, then in decoction: hepatitis
+
Origanum vulgare L.
Bozillek i malit, Çaj i malit, Çaj i zi, Çaj veni
Планински чај
W
FT
Infusion: recreational, anti-flu, bechic
+
+
Lamiaceae
CAME 26233
Infusion: anti-hepatitis
+
Infusion: for treating stomachaches, panacea
+
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
#
#
C
Se
Half beans are applied on the skin affected by a dog bite; when the beans fall off, the wound is healed
+
Fabaceae
Plantago lanceolata L.
Bar prenash, Dell, Lulë dheli, Premie
Жилавец
W
L
Crushed and topically applied on wounds: haemostatic
+
+
Plantaginaceae
CAME 26284
Plantago major L.
CAME 26261
Plantaginaceae
Infusion: for treating stomachaches
+
Primula veris L.
Lulë aguliçe, Lula dasht, Sgarifet
Гороцвеке
W
FAP
Infusion: panacea, cough
+
Primulaceae
CAME 26317
Infusion: intestinal troubles in kids
+
Infusion: externally applied on eye inflammations
+
Prunus domestica L.
#
#
C
Fr
Fermented and distilled in raki, topically applied, especially for wounds
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26239
Fermented and distilled into raki, which is drunk hot with sugar for treating cold
+
Fermented and distilled into raki, externally applied with salt for treating toothache
+
Prunus spinosa L.
#
W
Fr
Infusion: anti-rheumatic and anti-fever
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26260
Infusion: stomachache anti-diarrheal
+
Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd.
#
#
W
Fr
Decoction of the dried fruits with sugar: stomachaches
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26244
Pyrus amygdaliformis Vill.
Rosaceae
CAME 26316
Ribes multiflorum Kit. ex Roem. et Schult.
#
W
Fr
Consumed as snack and for treating digestive discomfort
+
Grossulariaceae
CAME 26263
Rosa canina L. s.l.
Karametha, Kroc, Kroza
Шипинка
W
Fr
Infusion: panacea
+
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26237
Infusion: anti-diarrheal, stomachaches
+
Infusion: sore throats, bechic, flu
+
+
Infusion: to treat “seven diseases”, blood depurative, diuretic, cardiotonic, anti-fever
+
Rubus hirtus Waldst. et Kit.
#
#
W
Fr
Oleolite in topical application: anti-haemorrhoidal
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26258
Rubus ulmifolius Schott
Rosaceae
CAME 26310
Rubus caesius L.
Rosaceae
CAME 26245
Fermented and distilled into raki, which is considered cardiotonic
+
L
Infusion: for treating stomachaches, anti-diarrheal, esp. in children
+
Sh
Externally applied on skin for treating infections
+
Sambucus ebulus L.
Див боз
W
Fr
Externally for treating herpes
+
Adoxaceae
CAME 26254
Sideritis raeseri Boiss. et Heldr.
Çai i bardhë, Çai mali
W
FAP
Infusion: flu
+
Lamiaceae
CAME 26281
Solanum tuberosum L.
#
#
C
T
Externally applied (in slices) for treating eye inflammations or head-aches*
+
Solanaceae
Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H. Wigg.
#
#
W
Fl
As part of the lule ditvere (“flower of the summer”) bunch, which is hung on the churn, as a good omen for the diary production
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26289
Thymus longicaulis C. Presl.
Полски чаj
W
AP
Infusion: panacea
+
Lamiaceae
CAME 26272
Tilia platyphyllos Scop.
Çaj blini
Пушала
W
Fl
Infusion: panacea
+
+
Malvaceae
CAME 26241
Infusion: recreational, flu
+
Ulmus minor Mill. and other Ulmus spp.
Vidh
W
G
Infusion: anti-hepatitis
+
Ulmaceae
CAME 26303
Urtica dioica L.
#
#
W
L
Externally rubbed on the affected part (eventually with salt): anti-rheumatic
+
Urticaceae
CAME 26262
L; R
Infusion: anti-rheumatic
+
+
YL
Cooked with rice with rice, eggs, and dairy products (buranjeALB/zeljeMAC), as post-partum reconstituent
+
AP
Externally applied for treating bruises
+
+
Externally rubbed on breasts in cows affected by the evil-eye
+
R
Decoction: anti-rheumatic
+
Vaccinium myrtillus L.
#
#
W
Fr
Snack for treating stomachache
+
Ericaceae
Infusion: anti-fever
+
Verbascum longifolium Ten.
Допушке
W
L
Infusion: flu
+
Scrophulariaceae
CAME 26287
Diverse tree species
W; C
WC
Hot charcoal put in water and the resulting liquid in external washes on the face of the child suffering from the evil-eye; or thrown on the person suspected to be the gazer
+
WC
Powdered and applied on the mom’s breast to wean the baby*
+
Diverse tree species
W; C
DW
Smoked, as a deterrent for bees and then anti-bites
+
WA
Externally applied (warm) on the cheek for treating toothache or on the neck for treating tonsillitis
+
Not identified
Млечка
W
AP
Infusion: hepatitis
+
§: first record of the species in Albania.
In bold: folk taxa quoted by more than 40% of the informants.
Plant part(s) used: AP aerial parts; Bu bulbs; DFB dried fruiting body; DW decayed wood; FAP flowering aerial parts; FB flowering branches; Fl flowers; Fr fruits; FT flowering tops; G galls; J juice; L leaves; R roots; Se seeds; Sh Shoots; T tubers; Th thorns; UF unripe fruits; WA ashes from wood; WC charcoal from wood; YL young leaves.
Figure 3
Dried flowering aerial parts ofHelichrysumsp.
Veterinary plants
The uses of 57 plant taxa for ethnoveterinary purposes are reported in Table 3. Apart from a certain number of fodder plants and a few medicinal remedies, a large portion of this section of the local ethnobotany is represented by plants that are used ritually for the Georgyovden feast (corresponding to St. George’s Day), in order to propitiate good health for the animals or a successful season for the dairy products. This tradition is especially relevant within the Macedonian community and it is well rooted within other South Slavic customs. In Bulgaria, for example, the St. George’s Day is associated with plant decorations being used to “protect” the animals and the house: Salix spp., Juglans regia, Artemisia spp., Clematis vitalba, Glechoma hederacea, Veronica officinalis, Chamaecytisus hirsutus, Convallaria majalis, Ranunculus acris, Caltha palustris, Ajuga spp., Lamium purpureum, and Ranunculus ficaria[65, 67, 68].
Table 3
Local plants considered for improving the animals’ well-being in the study area
Taxon, family and voucher specimen code
Folk name(s) recorded among Albanians
Folk name(s) recorded among Macedonians
Status
Plant part(s) used
Recorded local use(s)/perceptions(s)
Alb
Mac
Acer campestre L.
Клен
W
Br
Fodder (goats)
+
Sapindaceae
CAME 26252
Acer pseudoplatanus L.
Jавор
W
Br
Fodder
+
Sapindaceae
CAME 26313
Achillea millefolium L.
=
=
W
FAP
Infusion: for treating rumination troubles
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26294
Allium sativum L.
#
#
C
Bu
In necklaces to be worn on the cow’s horns against the evil-eye (sysh, naok); evil-eye symptoms include the animal not producing milk
+
+
Amaryllidaceae
Crushed, mixed with salt, and given as fodder to the sheep on St. George’s Day (May 6th): considered propitiatory for the good health of the animals
+
Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.
Габор
W
Br
Fodder
+
Betulaceae
CAME 26307
Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh.
Kokuta
W
AP
Fodder
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26296
Arctium lappa L.
Asteraceae
Avena sativa L.
Овес
C
Fr
Fodder, esp. considered good for the horse’s coat
+
Poaceae
Beta vulgaris L.
#
#
C
L
Fodder (raw or in decoctions)
+
+
Amaranthaceae
Bovista sp.
=
=
W
DFB
Externally applied on wounds as an haemostatic (horses)
+
Agaricaceae
Capsicum annuum L.
#
#
C
Fr
Lacto-fermented; the resulting fruits opened and externally applied on the forehead for treating headaches
+
Solanaceae
Carpinus orientalis Mill.
Shkoza
Шкоз
W
Br
Fodder at St. George’s Day (considered as a good omen)
+
Betulaceae
CAME 26301
Chelidonium majus L.
Gjak edhe qumësht
W
AP
Crushed, mixed with salt, and given as fodder to the sheep on St. George’s Day (May 6th): considered propitiatory for the good health of the animals, but also as a blood depurative and galactagogue
+
Papaveraceae
CAME 26250
Chenopodium album L.
Llabot
W
AP
Fodder
+
Amaranthaceae
CAME 26300
Clematis vitalba L.
Kurpna
Повит
W
AP
Fodder
+
Ranunculaceae
CAME 26259
Cornus mas L.
#
#
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Cornaceae
CAME 26279
Corylus avellana L.
#
#
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Betulaceae
CAME 26242
Br
Fodder (sheep and goats)
+
Crataegus monogyna Jacq.
#
#
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26280
Crataegus sericea Dzekov§
Rosaceae
CAME 26278
FB
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Cruciata laevipes Opiz
=
W
AP
Crushed, mixed with salt, and given as fodder to the sheep on St. George’s Day (May 6th): considered propitiatory for the good health of the animals
+
Rubiaceae
CAME 26276
Cucurbita maxima Duch.
#
#
C
Fr
Fodder
+
Cucurbitaceae
Cydonia oblonga Mill.
#
#
C
Fl
Honey plant
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26290
L
Infusion: stomachache
FB
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Euphorbia characias L.
#
W
WP
Considered poisonous and irritating the skin
+
Euphorbiaceae
CAME 26283
Fagus sylvatica L.
#
#
W
Fr
Fodder (esp. sheep)
+
+
Fagaceae
CAME 26249
L
Fodder, esp. for sheep and equines
+
+
Wo
Burned, as repellent for the bees when removing honey from the hives
Fraxinus excelsior L.
=
W
Br
Fodder for sheep
+
Oleaceae
CAME 26304
Helleborus odorus Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd.
=
=
W
AP
Ritually hung on doors and gates on March 13th as a good omen
+
+
Ranunculaceae
CAME 26282
R
Inserted on the horse ear: panacea
+
BFAP
Hung on the entry gates (to homes and stables), or on the churn on St. George's Day (May 6th): considered a good omen
+
+
Helichrysum plicatum DC. and other Helichrysum spp.
=
=
W
FAP
Infusion: for treating rumination troubles and diarrhea; kerato-conjunctivitis in sheep
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26274
Hordeum vulgare L.
Jачмен
C
Fr
Fodder, esp. considered good for improving the beauty of horse’s coat
+
Poaceae
Malus domestica Borkh.
#
#
C
L
Fodder for goats
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26236
FB
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Medicago sativa L.
Jonxha Njonxhë
C
AP
Fodder; considered good for improving the beauty of horse’s coat
+
+
Fabaceae
CAME 26292
AP
Galactagogue for animals
+
Melissa officinalis L.
=
=
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Lamiaceae
CAME 26235
Populus nigra L.
Plepi
W
L
Fodder
+
Salicaceae
CAME 26302
Primula veris L.
=
=
W
FAP
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen
+
Primulaceae
CAME 26317
Prunus avium (L.) L.
#
#
W
Br
Fodder
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26240
Prunus domestica L.
#
#
C
L
Fodder for goats
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26239
Prunus cerasus L.
#
#
C
Br
Fodder
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26298
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn
Fier
W
L
Bedding for animals
+
Dennstaedtiaceae
CAME 26315
Quercus cerris L.
Bung, Çarri, Dushk, Lis
Добк
W
Fr
Fodder for sheep and goats
+
+
Fagaceae
CAME 26256
Quercus frainetto Ten.
Fagaceae
CAME 26246
Br
Dried, and stored in loft: fodder
+
+
W
Sa
Externally instilled in the ear for treating earaches
+
Robinia pseudoacacia L.
Akac, Bagren
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Fabaceae
CAME 26305
Rosa canina L. s.l.
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Rosaceae
CAME 26237
Salix alba L.
Shelçë, Shelgë
W
L
Fodder for goats
+
CAME 26251
Salicaceae
Salix eleagnos Scop.
Salicaceae
CAME 26248
Salix purpurea L.
Salicaceae
CAMNE 26255
W
Fl
Honey plant
+
Salvia verticillata L.
Gombelik, Lule bulli
Гомбели
W
AP
Fodder
+
+
Lamiaceae
Sambucus ebulus L.
=
=
W
Fr
Externally for treating wounds in sheep
+
Adoxaceae
CAME 26254
Consumed by cats and dogs on their own when they do not feel well
+
Fr
Fermented and distilled into raki (rare)
+
Secale cereale L.
#
#
C
St
Galactagogue for animals (esp. given to the cows one month before giving birth)
+
+
Poaceae
Solanum tuberosum L.
#
#
C
T
Fodder
+
Solanaceae
Syringa vulgaris L.
Jоргован
C
FB
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Oleaceae
CAME 26309
Tanacetum macrophyllum (Waldst. et Kit.) Sch. Bip.
Вратика
W
AP
Together with nettles, this is rubbed on the goat’s mammaries on St. George’s day (May 6th) to improve milk production
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26269
Tanacetum vulgare L.
W
AP
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for the dairy production
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26268
Mixed with salt and given to sheep who are thirsty
+
Fodder
+
Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H. Wigg.
#
#
W
Fl
Crushed, mixed with salt, and ritually given as fodder to the animals on St. George’s Day (May 6th): considered a good omen and galactagogue
+
Asteraceae
CAME 26289
Honey plant
+
Trifolium pratense L.
Detelina
W
L
Fodder for sheep
+
+
Fabaceae
CAME 26297,
Trifolium incarnatum L. ssp. molineri (Hornem.) Ces.
Fabaceae
CAME 26318, and other Trifolium spp.
Fabaceae
Honey plant
+
Urtica dioica L.
#
#
W
AP
Rubbed onto the mammaries of cows affected by the Evil-Eye
+
Urticaceae
CAME 26262
Together with Tanacetum macrophyllum, this is rubbed onto goat mammaries on St. George’s day (May 6th) to improve milk production
+
Hung on churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen for dairy production
+
Fodder
+
Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.
Уров
C
Se
Fodder
+
Fabaceae
Zea mays L.
#
#
C
Fr
Fodder, esp. for increasing the growth speed of lambs and for improving the coat of horses
+
+
Poaceae
Galactagogue for all animals
+
Diverse tree species
W; C
WA
Repellent against other insects in the bee hives
+
Not identified
Лула манушаче
W
FAP
Hung on home gates, churns and stable doors on St. George’s Day (May 6th) as a good omen
+
Not identified
Spenger
W
R
Inserted on the animal ear for treating diverse diseases
+
§: first record of the species in Albania.
In bold: folk taxa quoted by more than 40% of the informants.
Plant part(s) used: AP aerial parts; Br branches; Bu bulbs; BAFP Branches with flowering aerial parts; FAP flowering aerial parts; FB flowering branches; Fl flowers; Fr fruits; L leaves; R roots; Sa sap; Se seeds; St stems; T tubers; Wo wood; WA ashes from wood; WP whole plant.
Drazheva has analyzed the coincidence of St. Georges’ Day with the most important spring feast in rural Bulgaria, which is widespread with varied rituals [69]. According to this review, one of the main circles connected with St. George's Day focuses around the ritual taking of the sheep to their summer pasture, the ritual milking, the sacrificial practices devoted to a saint who has inherited the characteristic features of the patron-ancestor of the Thracian Heroes, including the open-air feast usually associated with them. A second circle of rites and customs connected to Georgyovden is intended for guaranteeing health and well-being for the family, with fortune-telling about the forthcoming wedding feasts for the young people, which is directly related with the reproduction of the community in both its biological and social dimensions.
Cross-cultural ethnobotany: Macedonian vs. Albanian plant knowledge
From our analysis of the overlap between the Macedonian and Albanian ethnobotanies, we could point out that majority of plant reports (approx. half) were quoted by Macedonians only. However, this could be due to the uneven sample selection between the two field studies: the number of the Macedonian informants was roughly three times larger than the number of the Albanian interviewees. On the other hand, it is important to note that only extremely limited new information was found in both communities after the first dozen in-depth interviews. Our findings could support the persistence of a more “herbophilic” attitude among South-Slavs, as we have already postulated in previous cross-cultural comparative studies in the Western Balkans [26, 46]. Moreover, since Macedonians were and also are those in the study area who trade/sell the largest share of wild crafted medicinal herbs to the nearby Albanian towns (i.e. Elbasan, Tirana) and markets or via Albanian middle men, their knowledge of these plants remains within their sphere of household economics. Thus, these activities may have delayed the decrease of local plant knowledge among this population.
The plant reports found in common between the two communities are approx. one third of the overall recorded plant reports (Jaccard Index: 0.29). This would demonstrate some diverging trajectories of the ethnobotanies of the two groups, despite many years of living together in the same area and sharing the same religious faith. Nevertheless, these commonalities demonstrate how cultural edges are particularly significant in bio-cultural diversity [70].
The overlaps of the folk plant reports in the three considered domains (food, human medicine, and veterinary) are represented in Figure 4. In all three domains, the Jaccard Index measuring the similarity of the data sets collected among Albanians and Macedonians in Gollobordo is 0.29, although internal uses of medicinal plants (teas) and also ritual uses of veterinary plants made at Georgyovden seem to be much more relevant among Macedonians.
Figure 4
Diagram representing the overlaps between the food, medicinal, and veterinary plant reports recorded among Macedonians and Albanians in the study area.
We recently applied the concept of resilience to migrants’ ethnobotanies [45], while defining resilience as the capability of socio-ecological systems to absorb disturbances and to retain their basic structures and functions, which includes in particular four pillars [71]: 1) the capability of the systems of learning to live with change and absorb it; 2) of nurturing diversity for reorganisation and renewal; 3) of combining different kinds of knowledge for learning; and 4) of creating opportunities for self-organisation. The remarkable resilience evident in the Macedonian medical and veterinary ethnobotanies is indicative of a complex cultural adaptation processes that this community underwent. Moreover, the isolation of this community may related to the difficulties that Macedonians have experienced in accessing the mainstream Albanian culture and institutionalized health as well; the proof of this isolation can be seen in the generation of elderly women, who are the health care givers within the households and often still show difficulties in fluently speaking the Albanian language. Isolation could be ultimately seen then also as a kind of adaptive mechanism. This also shows how negotiations among diverse ethnic groups in mountainous areas could be linked to the practice of symbiotic relations and pluralism, as in the case studies of the Wakhi and Kyrgyz and Pashtu and Shugni of the Pamir [72, 73].
In 1956, Fredrik Barth proposed for his field site in the mountains of Swat, North Pakistan, a path-breaking reflection for those times concerning the link between the use of certain ecological niches and ethnic boundaries [74]. According to his observations, the distribution of ethnic groups ecological niches is controlled by the distribution of species each group is able to exploit. Moreover, different ethnic groups may exploit the same ecological niche only if the weaker of them would be better in using marginal environments. The history of Gollobordo’s Macedonians in the last century seems to confirm this, since this group remained concentrated in the highest and more inhospitable village sites, while Albanians began to replace Macedonians in the villages located to lowest altitudes. The Macedonian group had to learn to make use of these marginal areas and the affiliated local resources, including the use of potato leaves for food and the reliance on several herbal medicines, in both the domestic arena and for trade. Although partly symbiotic, the relationship between the two communities has not been equal and the Macedonians have occupied the more marginalized socio-cultural niche.
Conclusions
Local environmental resources derived from plants continue to play an important role in the provision of dietary and medical care for both humans and their livestock in Gollobordo’s communities. We could confirm a more herbophilic attitude of the Macedonians, especially with regards to medicinal and veterinary plants, while the overlaps between the Albanian and the Macedonian ethnobotanies are still relatively limited (restricted to a quarter of the overall recorded plant reports). This confirms that in Gollobordo, despite the two communities having shared the same religion and the same environmental space for many decades, the “original” TEK systems still persist, perhaps due to the geographical and cultural isolation of the area, especially with regards to the Macedonian community. Initiatives aimed at generating an endogenous rural development and especially at fostering sustainable gathering activities of local plants – as well as their small-scale trade and eco-tourism – should seriously consider these cultural divergences. This could in turn promote a tighter collaboration between the two communities and help to sustain the threatened linguistic and cultural heritage of the Macedonian minority.
Declarations
Acknowledgments
Special thanks are due to all informants, who generously shared their knowledge regarding local plants and especially to Hajredin Ferataj, Prishtinë, Republic of Kosovo, for the simultaneous translations; to Tanya Gervasi, Giaveno/Milan/New York and to Domenico Lucarini, Herbarium of the University of Camerino (CAME) for the assistance.
The fieldwork has been conducted with the financial support of the University of Gastronomic Sciences.
Authors’ Affiliations
(1)
University of Gastronomic Sciences
(2)
School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino
(3)
Department of Botany, University of Sofia
(4)
Department of Biology, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”
(5)
Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University
(6)
Department of Dermatology, Emory University School of Medicine
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